Femminicidi a Ciudad Juárez: differenze tra le versioni

Secondo [https://beyondborders.nmsu.edu/campus-partners/molly-molloy.html Molly Molloy], professoressa alla [[New Mexico State University]], la situazione a Juárez è una di "impunità <u>indipendentemente dal genere</u>"<ref name="grassroots2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.grass-roots-press.com/2010/05/12/3615/|title=Juárez murders: Impunity regardless of gender : Grassroots Press|access-date=2019-10-18|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316110340/http://www.grass-roots-press.com/2010/05/12/3615/|archive-date=16 marzo 2014|first=Molly|last=Molloy}}</ref>. Dice infatti che: <blockquote>"le vittime di omicidio femminile non hanno mai rappresentato più del 18% del totale delle vittime di omicidio a Ciudad Juárez, e negli ultimi due decenni quella figura media meno del 10%. Questo è meno degli Stati Uniti, dove circa il 20-25% delle persone che vengono uccise in un dato anno sono donne".<ref name="TO2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/qa-molly-molloy-story-juarez-femicides-myth/|title=Molly Molloy: La storia dei femminicidi di Juárez è un 'mito'|date=09-01-2014|website=The Texas Observer|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-18}}</ref></blockquote>Altri studiosi affermano anche che <u>i tassi di femminicidio a Ciudad Juárez sono inferiori a quelli delle città americane come Houston e Ensenada</u> e, come quota del totale dei tassi di omicidio, sono tipicamente inferiori ad altre città.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Albuquerque|first1=Pedro H.|last2=Vemala|first2=Prasad|date=2015-11-09|title=Femicide Rates in Mexican Cities along the US-Mexico Border: Do the Maquiladora Industries Play a Role?|language=en|location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=1112308}}</ref>  

 

===Maquila industry===

[[Maquiladora]]s are widely known for their cheap labor and their exploitative conditions, such as regularly violating basic [[human rights]], that often target women.<ref name="Pantaleo2">{{cite journal|last=Pantaleo|first=Katherine|year=2010|title=Gendered Violence: An Analysis of the Maquiladora Murders|journal=International Criminal Justice Review|volume=20|issue=4|page=349365|doi=10.1177/1057567710380914|s2cid=144818023}}</ref> Women and girls often migrate from villages or rural areas in other parts of Mexico in search of work in the maquilas.<ref name="Livingston2">{{cite journal|last=Livingston|first=Jessica|year=2004|title=Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly Line|journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies|volume=25|issue=1|pages=59–76|doi=10.1353/fro.2004.0034|jstor=3347254|s2cid=144659311}}</ref> According to Livingston, this migration of women created, "a new phenomenon of mobile, independent, and vulnerable working women," in cities like Ciudad Juárez.<ref name="Livingston2" /> Many of the murder victims in Ciudad Juárez have been maquiladora employees.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Despite the expansion of the maquila industry, Juárez still remained a relatively poor and undeveloped city lacking infrastructure in some parts such as electricity and paved roads.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> As a part of their daily commute, many women maquila workers walk through such areas to and from company buses creating vulnerability to be victimized.<ref name="Livingston2" /><ref name="Pantaleo2" /> In addition, the increased involvement of women in the labor force may also be a contributing factor to the victimization of women and girls because of the competition for economic resources in decades in which [[male unemployment]] has been high.<ref name="Livingston2" /><ref name="Pantaleo2" />

The implementation of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] in 1994 resulted in the expansion of the maquiladora industry and created new opportunities for employment for women outside of the home and in the factories.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> The availability of cheap labor made it attractive for business owners to open factories in Mexico, and the availability of cheap employment attracted many, especially women, to border towns such as Ciudad Juárez. Research has shown correlations between economic and political issues and violence against women along the border.<ref name="Pantaleo2" />

Academic Katherine Pantaleo has argued that "NAFTA, as a capitalist approach, has directly created a devaluation of women and an increase in gendered violence."<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Further, according to Wright, in the time period between the implementation of NAFTA in 1994 and 2001, "the homicide rate for men increased by 300 percent, while for women it increased by 600 percent."<ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Melissa M.|title=Public Women, Profit, and Femicide in Northern Mexico|journal=South Atlantic Quarterly|year=2006|volume=1054|issue=4|pages=681–698|doi=10.1215/00382876-2006-003}}</ref> Such studies indicate the importance of exploring the effects of NAFTA when considering the possible causes of the murder of women and girls in Ciudad Juárez.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Consequently, it has been suggested that amendments be made to NAFTA that include human rights provisions.<ref name="Pantaleo2" />

===Gender roles===

Sociocultural attitudes to traditional gender roles have influenced violence against women.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> According to Pantaleo, "Under the view of patriarchy, two expressions are commonly used in Mexico to show the difference in the status of males and females; these expressions are [[machismo]] and [[marianismo]]."<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Machismo is characterized by male power and aggression; while marianismo is characterized by subordination and domestic duties.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Women who leave their homes to seek employment in the maquila industry directly challenge the marianismo.<ref name="Livingston2" /> Olivera suggests that this changed situation challenges [[hypermasculinity]].<ref name="Olivera">{{cite journal|last=Olivera|first=Mercedes|s2cid=62803124|title=Violencia Femicida : Violence Against Women and Mexico's Structural Crisis|journal=Latin American Perspectives|year=2006|volume=33|issue=104|pages=104–114|doi=10.1177/0094582X05286092}}</ref> According to Livingston, gender-directed violence in Ciudad Juárez may be a negative reaction as women "gain greater personal autonomy and independence while men lose ground."<ref name="Livingston2" />

The murder of women in Juárez has attracted global attention since 1993 given suspected police and government inaction to prevent the murders and bring perpetrators to justice.<ref name="Widyono" /> Police and government officials have been accused of responding with indifference to the crimes against women as well as exhibiting tolerance for such crimes, conducting inadequate and negligent investigations, ineffectively responding to the crimes, and failing to prevent and protect women from violence.<ref name="Livingston2" /><ref name="CEDAW">{{cite journal|last=Sokhi-Bulley|first=Bal|title=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First Steps|journal=Human Rights Law Review|year=2006|volume=6|issue=1|pages=143–159|doi=10.1093/hrlr/ngi029}}</ref><ref name="Amnesty 2">{{cite web|title=Mexico - Amnesty International Report 2010|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/mexico/report-2010|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> According to Livingston, "In 1998 the National Commission for Human Rights issued a report charging gross irregularities and general negligence in state investigations, including the misidentification of corpses, failure to obtain expert tests on forensic evidence, failure to conduct autopsies or obtain semen analysis... failure to file written reports, [and] incompetence in keeping records of the rising tide of women murders."<ref name="Livingston2" />

[[Image:Familiares de mujeres asesinada.jpg|thumb|2007 protest by some victims' families demanding punishment of the killers]]There have been numerous local efforts that have helped draw attention to the femicides in Juárez.<ref name="Amnesty" /><ref name="Wright" /> In 1999, a group of feminist activists founded Casa Amiga, Juárez's first rape crisis and sexual assault center.<ref name="Wright 2">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Melissa W.|title=A Manifest against Femicide|journal=Antipode|date=December 2002|volume=33|issue=3|pages=550–566|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00198|pmid=19165968}}</ref> The center works to provide women in Juárez with a refuge against violence, therapy, legal council, and medical attention.<ref name="Wright 2" /> In 2002, a social justice movement named [[Ni Una Mas]], which in Spanish means "not one more," was formed to raise international awareness to violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Wright" /> The movement consists of a variety of domestic and international organizations and individual activists.<ref name="Wright" /> Ni Una Mas participants demand that the Mexican state implement strategies that prevent violence against women including murder and kidnappings and that the state conduct competent investigations on crimes already committed.<ref name="Wright" /> [[Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C.]], which in Spanish means "Our Daughters Back Home" also formed in response to the violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Wright 2" /> [[Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C.]] has also worked to bring domestic and international media attention to the violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Lorenzo">{{cite journal|last=Blanco|first=Lorenzo|author2=Sandra M. Villa|title=Sources of crime in the state of Veracruz: The role of female labor force participation and wage inequality|journal=Feminist Economics|date=October 2008|volume=14|issue=3|pages=51–75|doi=10.1080/13545700802075143|s2cid=154371170}}</ref>