Femminicidi a Ciudad Juárez: differenze tra le versioni

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* il ''femminicidio intimo'' ha rappresentato il 30,4% dei omicidi di quelle donne.  
* il ''femminicidio intimo'' ha rappresentato il 30,4% dei omicidi di quelle donne.  
* Il ''femminicidio sessuale sistematico'' si riferisce a modelli sistematici nell'uccisione di donne e bambine, compreso il rapimento, la violenza sessuale, la tortura e l'abbandono dei corpi in aree come deserti, discariche e fognature. Secondo lo studio, il femminicidio sessuale sistematico ha rappresentato il 31,8% dei omicidi di quelle donne.<ref name="Fragoso2" />[[File:Cd Juarez murder rate chart 1.png|thumb|450px|total number of homicides in Juárez]]
* Il ''femminicidio sessuale sistematico'' si riferisce a modelli sistematici nell'uccisione di donne e bambine, compreso il rapimento, la violenza sessuale, la tortura e l'abbandono dei corpi in aree come deserti, discariche e fognature. Secondo lo studio, il femminicidio sessuale sistematico ha rappresentato il 31,8% dei omicidi di quelle donne.<ref name="Fragoso2" />[[File:Cd Juarez murder rate chart 1.png|thumb|450px|total number of homicides in Juárez]]
Secondo [https://beyondborders.nmsu.edu/campus-partners/molly-molloy.html Molly Molloy], professoressa alla [[New Mexico State University]], la situazione a Juárez è una di "impunità <u>indipendentemente dal genere</u>"<ref name="grassroots2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.grass-roots-press.com/2010/05/12/3615/|title=Juárez murders: Impunity regardless of gender : Grassroots Press|access-date=2019-10-18|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316110340/http://www.grass-roots-press.com/2010/05/12/3615/|archive-date=16 marzo 2014|first=Molly|last=Molloy}}</ref>. Dice infatti che: <blockquote>"le vittime di omicidio femminile non hanno mai rappresentato più del 18% del totale delle vittime di omicidio a Ciudad Juárez, e negli ultimi due decenni quella figura media meno del 10%. Questo è meno degli Stati Uniti, dove circa il 20-25% delle persone che vengono uccise in un dato anno sono donne".<ref name="TO2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/qa-molly-molloy-story-juarez-femicides-myth/|title=Molly Molloy: La storia dei femminicidi di Juárez è un 'mito'|date=09-01-2014|website=The Texas Observer|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-18}}</ref></blockquote>Altri studiosi affermano anche che <u>i tassi di femminicidio a Ciudad Juárez sono inferiori a quelli delle città americane come Houston e Ensenada</u> e, come quota del totale dei tassi di omicidio, sono tipicamente inferiori ad altre città.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Albuquerque|first1=Pedro H.|last2=Vemala|first2=Prasad|date=2015-11-09|title=Femicide Rates in Mexican Cities along the US-Mexico Border: Do the Maquiladora Industries Play a Role?|language=en|location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=1112308}}</ref>  
Secondo [https://beyondborders.nmsu.edu/campus-partners/molly-molloy.html Molly Molloy], professoressa alla [[New Mexico State University]], la situazione a Juárez è una di "impunità <u>indipendentemente dal genere</u>"<ref name="grassroots2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.grass-roots-press.com/2010/05/12/3615/|title=Juárez murders: Impunity regardless of gender : Grassroots Press|access-date=2019-10-18|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316110340/http://www.grass-roots-press.com/2010/05/12/3615/|archive-date=16 marzo 2014|first=Molly|last=Molloy}}</ref>. Dice infatti che: <blockquote>"le vittime di omicidio femminile non hanno mai rappresentato più del 18% del totale delle vittime di omicidio a Ciudad Juárez, e negli ultimi due decenni quella figura media meno del 10%. Questo è meno degli Stati Uniti, dove circa il 20-25% delle persone che vengono uccise in un dato anno sono donne".<ref name="TO2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/qa-molly-molloy-story-juarez-femicides-myth/|title=Molly Molloy: La storia dei femminicidi di Juárez è un 'mito'|date=09-01-2014|website=The Texas Observer|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-18}}</ref></blockquote>Altri studiosi affermano anche che <u>i tassi di femminicidio a Ciudad Juárez sono inferiori a quelli delle città americane come Houston e Ensenada</u> e, come quota del totale dei tassi di omicidio, sono tipicamente inferiori ad altre città.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Albuquerque|first1=Pedro H.|last2=Vemala|first2=Prasad|date=2015-11-09|title=Femicide Rates in Mexican Cities along the US-Mexico Border: Do the Maquiladora Industries Play a Role?|language=en|location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=1112308}}</ref>
 
== Fattori contribuenti ==
== Fattori contribuenti ==
=== Criminalità organizzata e traffico di droga ===
=== Criminalità organizzata e traffico di droga ===
{{main|Crime in Mexico|Juárez Cartel|Mexican Drug War}}
{{main|Crime in Mexico|Juárez Cartel|Mexican Drug War}}
Riga 16: Riga 14:


La misoginia è un tratto comune dell'attività dei gang.<ref name="Olivera2" /> Secondo uno studio condotto nel 2008, il 9,1% dei delitti contro le donne sono stati attribuiti alle attività di criminalità organizzata e traffico di droga.<ref name="Fragoso3" />
La misoginia è un tratto comune dell'attività dei gang.<ref name="Olivera2" /> Secondo uno studio condotto nel 2008, il 9,1% dei delitti contro le donne sono stati attribuiti alle attività di criminalità organizzata e traffico di droga.<ref name="Fragoso3" />
===Maquila industry===
 
[[Maquiladora]]s are widely known for their cheap labor and their exploitative conditions, such as regularly violating basic [[human rights]], that often target women.<ref name="Pantaleo2">{{cite journal|last=Pantaleo|first=Katherine|year=2010|title=Gendered Violence: An Analysis of the Maquiladora Murders|journal=International Criminal Justice Review|volume=20|issue=4|page=349365|doi=10.1177/1057567710380914|s2cid=144818023}}</ref> Women and girls often migrate from villages or rural areas in other parts of Mexico in search of work in the maquilas.<ref name="Livingston2">{{cite journal|last=Livingston|first=Jessica|year=2004|title=Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly Line|journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies|volume=25|issue=1|pages=59–76|doi=10.1353/fro.2004.0034|jstor=3347254|s2cid=144659311}}</ref> According to Livingston, this migration of women created, "a new phenomenon of mobile, independent, and vulnerable working women," in cities like Ciudad Juárez.<ref name="Livingston2" /> Many of the murder victims in Ciudad Juárez have been maquiladora employees.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Despite the expansion of the maquila industry, Juárez still remained a relatively poor and undeveloped city lacking infrastructure in some parts such as electricity and paved roads.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> As a part of their daily commute, many women maquila workers walk through such areas to and from company buses creating vulnerability to be victimized.<ref name="Livingston2" /><ref name="Pantaleo2" /> In addition, the increased involvement of women in the labor force may also be a contributing factor to the victimization of women and girls because of the competition for economic resources in decades in which [[male unemployment]] has been high.<ref name="Livingston2" /><ref name="Pantaleo2" />
=== Industria Maquila ===
Le [https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquiladora maquiladoras]<ref>Le '''''maquiladoras''''' sono stabilimenti industriali posseduti o controllati da soggetti stranieri, in cui avvengono trasformazioni o assemblaggi di componenti temporaneamente esportati da paesi maggiormente industrializzati in un regime di duty free ed esenzione fiscale. I prodotti assemblati o trasformati dovranno successivamente essere esportati all'estero.
 
Questo fenomeno è caratteristico tra il Messico e gli Stati Uniti.</ref> sono note per il loro basso costo del lavoro e per le <u>condizioni di sfruttamento</u>, come la regolare violazione dei diritti umani di base, che <u>spesso colpiscono le donne</u><ref name="Pantaleo24">{{cite journal|last=Pantaleo|first=Katherine|year=2010|title=Gendered Violence: An Analysis of the Maquiladora Murders|journal=International Criminal Justice Review|volume=20|issue=4|page=349365|doi=10.1177/1057567710380914|s2cid=144818023}}</ref>.
 
<u>Donne e ragazze spesso migrano da villaggi o zone rurali in altre parti del Messico alla ricerca di lavoro nelle maquila</u>.<ref name="Livingston23">{{cite journal|last=Livingston|first=Jessica|year=2004|title=Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly Line|journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies|volume=25|issue=1|pages=59–76|doi=10.1353/fro.2004.0034|jstor=3347254|s2cid=144659311}}</ref>  
 
Secondo Livingston, questa migrazione di donne ha creato "un nuovo fenomeno di donne lavoratrici mobili, indipendenti e vulnerabili" in città come Ciudad Juárez.<ref name="Livingston23" />  
 
M<u>olti delle vittime di omicidio a Ciudad Juárez erano dipendenti delle maquila</u><ref name="Pantaleo24" />. Nonostante l'espansione dell'industria maquila, Juárez è rimasto una città relativamente povera e sviluppata, che mancava di infrastrutture in alcune parti come elettricità e strade pavimentate.<ref name="Pantaleo24" /> Come parte del loro tragitto quotidiano, molte lavoratrici delle maquila camminano attraverso tali zone per andare e tornare dai pullman aziendali, creando vulnerabilità alla vittimizzazione<ref name="Livingston23" /><ref name="Pantaleo24" />.
 
Inoltre, l'aumento della partecipazione delle donne al mercato del lavoro potrebbe essere anche un fattore contributivo alla vittimizzazione di donne e ragazze a causa della competizione per le risorse economiche in decenni in cui il tasso di disoccupazione maschile è stato elevato.<ref name="Livingston23" /><ref name="Pantaleo24" />
===NAFTA===
===NAFTA===
The implementation of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] in 1994 resulted in the expansion of the maquiladora industry and created new opportunities for employment for women outside of the home and in the factories.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> The availability of cheap labor made it attractive for business owners to open factories in Mexico, and the availability of cheap employment attracted many, especially women, to border towns such as Ciudad Juárez. Research has shown correlations between economic and political issues and violence against women along the border.<ref name="Pantaleo2" />
L'implementazione del [[Trattato di Libero Commercio Nordamericano]] nel 1994 ha portato all'espansione dell'industria maquiladora e ha creato nuove opportunità di lavoro per le donne al di fuori delle case e nelle fabbriche.<ref name="Pantaleo25" /> La disponibilità di manodopera a basso costo ha reso attraente per i proprietari di aziende aprire fabbriche in Messico, e la disponibilità di lavoro a basso costo ha attirato molte, soprattutto donne, nei centri urbani di confine come Ciudad Juárez. La ricerca ha dimostrato correlazioni tra questioni economiche e politiche e violenza contro le donne lungo il confine.<ref name="Pantaleo25" />


Academic Katherine Pantaleo has argued that "NAFTA, as a capitalist approach, has directly created a devaluation of women and an increase in gendered violence."<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Further, according to Wright, in the time period between the implementation of NAFTA in 1994 and 2001, "the homicide rate for men increased by 300 percent, while for women it increased by 600 percent."<ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Melissa M.|title=Public Women, Profit, and Femicide in Northern Mexico|journal=South Atlantic Quarterly|year=2006|volume=1054|issue=4|pages=681–698|doi=10.1215/00382876-2006-003}}</ref> Such studies indicate the importance of exploring the effects of NAFTA when considering the possible causes of the murder of women and girls in Ciudad Juárez.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Consequently, it has been suggested that amendments be made to NAFTA that include human rights provisions.<ref name="Pantaleo2" />
La accademica Katherine Pantaleo ha sostenuto che "NAFTA, come approccio capitalista, ha direttamente creato una svalutazione delle donne e un aumento di violenza di genere."<ref name="Pantaleo25" /> Inoltre, secondo Wright, nel periodo tra l'implementazione di NAFTA nel 1994 e nel 2001, "il tasso di omicidi per gli uomini è aumentato del 300 percento, mentre per le donne è aumentato del 600 percento."<ref name="Wright2">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Melissa M.|title=Public Women, Profit, and Femicide in Northern Mexico|journal=South Atlantic Quarterly|year=2006|volume=1054|issue=4|pages=681–698|doi=10.1215/00382876-2006-003}}</ref> Tali studi indicano l'importanza di esplorare gli effetti di NAFTA quando si considerano le possibili cause delle uccisioni di donne e ragazze a Ciudad Juárez.<ref name="Pantaleo25" /> Di conseguenza, si è suggerito che vengano apportate modifiche a NAFTA che includano disposizioni sui diritti umani.<ref name="Pantaleo25" />  
===Gender roles===
===Ruoli di genere===
Sociocultural attitudes to traditional gender roles have influenced violence against women.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> According to Pantaleo, "Under the view of patriarchy, two expressions are commonly used in Mexico to show the difference in the status of males and females; these expressions are [[machismo]] and [[marianismo]]."<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Machismo is characterized by male power and aggression; while marianismo is characterized by subordination and domestic duties.<ref name="Pantaleo2" /> Women who leave their homes to seek employment in the maquila industry directly challenge the marianismo.<ref name="Livingston2" /> Olivera suggests that this changed situation challenges [[hypermasculinity]].<ref name="Olivera">{{cite journal|last=Olivera|first=Mercedes|s2cid=62803124|title=Violencia Femicida : Violence Against Women and Mexico's Structural Crisis|journal=Latin American Perspectives|year=2006|volume=33|issue=104|pages=104–114|doi=10.1177/0094582X05286092}}</ref> According to Livingston, gender-directed violence in Ciudad Juárez may be a negative reaction as women "gain greater personal autonomy and independence while men lose ground."<ref name="Livingston2" />
Gli atteggiamenti socioculturali nei confronti dei ruoli di genere tradizionali hanno influenzato la violenza contro le donne.<ref name="Pantaleo23" /> Secondo Pantaleo, <blockquote>"sotto la visione del patriarcato, in Messico si usano comunemente due espressioni per mostrare la differenza di status tra maschi e femmine; queste espressioni sono [[machismo]] e [[marianismo]]". "Il machismo è caratterizzato dal potere maschile e dall'aggressività, mentre il marianismo è caratterizzato dalla subordinazione e dai doveri domestici"<ref name="Pantaleo23" /> </blockquote>Le donne che lasciano le loro case per cercare lavoro nell'industria delle maquila sfidano direttamente il marianismo. <ref name="Livingston22" /> Olivera suggerisce che questa mutata situazione sfida l'[[ipermascolinità]].<ref name="Olivera3">{{cite journal|last=Olivera|first=Mercedes|s2cid=62803124|title=Violencia Femicida : Violence Against Women and Mexico's Structural Crisis|journal=Latin American Perspectives|year=2006|volume=33|issue=104|pages=104-114|doi=10. 1177/0094582X05286092}}</ref> Secondo Livingston, la violenza di genere a Ciudad Juárez può essere una reazione negativa in quanto le donne "ottengono una maggiore autonomia e indipendenza personale mentre gli uomini perdono terreno"<ref name="Livingston22" />.
==Police and governmental response==
==Police and governmental response==
The murder of women in Juárez has attracted global attention since 1993 given suspected police and government inaction to prevent the murders and bring perpetrators to justice.<ref name="Widyono" /> Police and government officials have been accused of responding with indifference to the crimes against women as well as exhibiting tolerance for such crimes, conducting inadequate and negligent investigations, ineffectively responding to the crimes, and failing to prevent and protect women from violence.<ref name="Livingston2" /><ref name="CEDAW">{{cite journal|last=Sokhi-Bulley|first=Bal|title=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First Steps|journal=Human Rights Law Review|year=2006|volume=6|issue=1|pages=143–159|doi=10.1093/hrlr/ngi029}}</ref><ref name="Amnesty 2">{{cite web|title=Mexico - Amnesty International Report 2010|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/mexico/report-2010|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> According to Livingston, "In 1998 the National Commission for Human Rights issued a report charging gross irregularities and general negligence in state investigations, including the misidentification of corpses, failure to obtain expert tests on forensic evidence, failure to conduct autopsies or obtain semen analysis... failure to file written reports, [and] incompetence in keeping records of the rising tide of women murders."<ref name="Livingston2" />
The murder of women in Juárez has attracted global attention since 1993 given suspected police and government inaction to prevent the murders and bring perpetrators to justice.<ref name="Widyono" /> Police and government officials have been accused of responding with indifference to the crimes against women as well as exhibiting tolerance for such crimes, conducting inadequate and negligent investigations, ineffectively responding to the crimes, and failing to prevent and protect women from violence.<ref name="Livingston2">{{cite journal|last=Livingston|first=Jessica|year=2004|title=Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly Line|journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies|volume=25|issue=1|pages=59–76|doi=10.1353/fro.2004.0034|jstor=3347254|s2cid=144659311}}</ref><ref name="CEDAW">{{cite journal|last=Sokhi-Bulley|first=Bal|title=The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First Steps|journal=Human Rights Law Review|year=2006|volume=6|issue=1|pages=143–159|doi=10.1093/hrlr/ngi029}}</ref><ref name="Amnesty 2">{{cite web|title=Mexico - Amnesty International Report 2010|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/mexico/report-2010|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> According to Livingston, "In 1998 the National Commission for Human Rights issued a report charging gross irregularities and general negligence in state investigations, including the misidentification of corpses, failure to obtain expert tests on forensic evidence, failure to conduct autopsies or obtain semen analysis... failure to file written reports, [and] incompetence in keeping records of the rising tide of women murders."<ref name="Livingston2" />


As a result of international attention, police and government officials have been politically pressured to respond to the murders.<ref name="Amnesty 4">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr41/026/2003/en/|title=Ten years of abductions and murders of women in Ciudad Juárez and Chihuahua: Developments as of September 2003|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> In 2011, Amnesty International said, "The government [has] failed to take effective measures to investigate and bring to justice those responsible for the abduction and killing of three women in Ciudad Juárez... or to combat the ongoing pattern of violence against women and discrimination in the city.<ref name="Amnesty 3">{{cite web|title=Annual Report: Mexico 2011|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/annual-report-mexico-2011?page=show|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=14 March 2012}}</ref>
As a result of international attention, police and government officials have been politically pressured to respond to the murders.<ref name="Amnesty 4">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr41/026/2003/en/|title=Ten years of abductions and murders of women in Ciudad Juárez and Chihuahua: Developments as of September 2003|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=19 March 2012}}</ref> In 2011, Amnesty International said, "The government [has] failed to take effective measures to investigate and bring to justice those responsible for the abduction and killing of three women in Ciudad Juárez... or to combat the ongoing pattern of violence against women and discrimination in the city.<ref name="Amnesty 3">{{cite web|title=Annual Report: Mexico 2011|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/annual-report-mexico-2011?page=show|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=14 March 2012}}</ref>
Riga 53: Riga 62:
According to Amnesty International, "In [2009], the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]] ruled on the “cotton field” ([[Campo Algodonero in Cd. Juarez|Campo Algodonero]]) case that Mexico was guilty of discrimination and of failing to protect three young women murdered in 2001 in Ciudad Juárez or to ensure an effective investigation into their abduction and murder."<ref name="Amnesty 2" /> The Court ordered Mexico to conduct a new investigation of the murders, create a national memorial for the victims, pay reparations to the families of the victims, and to improve measures which prevent and adequately investigate the murder of women and girls.<ref name="El Paso Times">{{cite news|last=Ortega Lozano|first=Marisela|title=130 women killed in Juárez this year; Chihuahua AG says fight for women's rights painful and slow|url=http://www.elpasotimes.com/ci_18747536?IADID=Search-www.elpasotimes.com-www.elpasotimes.com|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130122001358/http://www.elpasotimes.com/ci_18747536?IADID=Search-www.elpasotimes.com-www.elpasotimes.com|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 January 2013|access-date=14 March 2012|newspaper=El Paso Times|date=24 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="Amnesty 2" />
According to Amnesty International, "In [2009], the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]] ruled on the “cotton field” ([[Campo Algodonero in Cd. Juarez|Campo Algodonero]]) case that Mexico was guilty of discrimination and of failing to protect three young women murdered in 2001 in Ciudad Juárez or to ensure an effective investigation into their abduction and murder."<ref name="Amnesty 2" /> The Court ordered Mexico to conduct a new investigation of the murders, create a national memorial for the victims, pay reparations to the families of the victims, and to improve measures which prevent and adequately investigate the murder of women and girls.<ref name="El Paso Times">{{cite news|last=Ortega Lozano|first=Marisela|title=130 women killed in Juárez this year; Chihuahua AG says fight for women's rights painful and slow|url=http://www.elpasotimes.com/ci_18747536?IADID=Search-www.elpasotimes.com-www.elpasotimes.com|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130122001358/http://www.elpasotimes.com/ci_18747536?IADID=Search-www.elpasotimes.com-www.elpasotimes.com|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 January 2013|access-date=14 March 2012|newspaper=El Paso Times|date=24 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="Amnesty 2" />
==Local activism==
==Local activism==
[[Image:Familiares de mujeres asesinada.jpg|thumb|2007 protest by some victims' families demanding punishment of the killers]]There have been numerous local efforts that have helped draw attention to the femicides in Juárez.<ref name="Amnesty" /><ref name="Wright" /> In 1999, a group of feminist activists founded Casa Amiga, Juárez's first rape crisis and sexual assault center.<ref name="Wright 2">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Melissa W.|title=A Manifest against Femicide|journal=Antipode|date=December 2002|volume=33|issue=3|pages=550–566|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00198|pmid=19165968}}</ref> The center works to provide women in Juárez with a refuge against violence, therapy, legal council, and medical attention.<ref name="Wright 2" /> In 2002, a social justice movement named [[Ni Una Mas]], which in Spanish means "not one more," was formed to raise international awareness to violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Wright" /> The movement consists of a variety of domestic and international organizations and individual activists.<ref name="Wright" /> Ni Una Mas participants demand that the Mexican state implement strategies that prevent violence against women including murder and kidnappings and that the state conduct competent investigations on crimes already committed.<ref name="Wright" /> [[Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C.]], which in Spanish means "Our Daughters Back Home" also formed in response to the violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Wright 2" /> [[Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C.]] has also worked to bring domestic and international media attention to the violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Lorenzo">{{cite journal|last=Blanco|first=Lorenzo|author2=Sandra M. Villa|title=Sources of crime in the state of Veracruz: The role of female labor force participation and wage inequality|journal=Feminist Economics|date=October 2008|volume=14|issue=3|pages=51–75|doi=10.1080/13545700802075143|s2cid=154371170}}</ref>
[[Image:Familiares de mujeres asesinada.jpg|thumb|2007 protest by some victims' families demanding punishment of the killers]]There have been numerous local efforts that have helped draw attention to the femicides in Juárez.<ref name="Amnesty" /><ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Melissa M.|title=Public Women, Profit, and Femicide in Northern Mexico|journal=South Atlantic Quarterly|year=2006|volume=1054|issue=4|pages=681–698|doi=10.1215/00382876-2006-003}}</ref> In 1999, a group of feminist activists founded Casa Amiga, Juárez's first rape crisis and sexual assault center.<ref name="Wright 2">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Melissa W.|title=A Manifest against Femicide|journal=Antipode|date=December 2002|volume=33|issue=3|pages=550–566|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00198|pmid=19165968}}</ref> The center works to provide women in Juárez with a refuge against violence, therapy, legal council, and medical attention.<ref name="Wright 2" /> In 2002, a social justice movement named [[Ni Una Mas]], which in Spanish means "not one more," was formed to raise international awareness to violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Wright" /> The movement consists of a variety of domestic and international organizations and individual activists.<ref name="Wright" /> Ni Una Mas participants demand that the Mexican state implement strategies that prevent violence against women including murder and kidnappings and that the state conduct competent investigations on crimes already committed.<ref name="Wright" /> [[Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C.]], which in Spanish means "Our Daughters Back Home" also formed in response to the violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Wright 2" /> [[Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C.]] has also worked to bring domestic and international media attention to the violence against women in Juárez.<ref name="Lorenzo">{{cite journal|last=Blanco|first=Lorenzo|author2=Sandra M. Villa|title=Sources of crime in the state of Veracruz: The role of female labor force participation and wage inequality|journal=Feminist Economics|date=October 2008|volume=14|issue=3|pages=51–75|doi=10.1080/13545700802075143|s2cid=154371170}}</ref>
==Cultural references==
==Cultural references==
===In television and radio===
===In television and radio===

Versione delle 02:12, 5 feb 2023


L'articolo prende spunto da quello su Wikipedia in inglese Femicides in Ciudad Juárez, riassumendolo e ampliandolo.

The location of Ciudad Juárez

Gli omicidi di donne e ragazze avvenuti a Ciudad Juárez, in Messico[1], tra il 1993 e il 2005, sono stati oggetto di attenzione internazionale a causa della percepita inazione del governo nel prevenire la violenza e nel consegnare i responsabili alla giustizia[2]. Il tema è stato trattato in molti drammi, canzoni, libri e così via.

Una commissione governativa ha rilevato che circa la metà dei 155 omicidi censiti su 340 documentati erano motivati da rapine e guerre tra bande, mentre oltre un terzo riguardava violenze sessuali. Nel dicembre 2016, nel Comune di Madera, a Chihuahua, è stata rinvenuta una fossa comune attribuita alla criminalità organizzata (narcofosa) contenente i resti di donne uccise nel 2011 e nel 2012[3].

Homicide statistics

Amnesty International ha dichiarato nel 2005 che più di 370 giovani donne e ragazze sono state uccise nelle città di Ciudad Juárez e Chihuahua dal 1993[1]. Uno studio del 2008 sul database Femicide 1993-2007 al Colegio de la Frontera Norte ha documentato incidenti di femminicidio che si sono verificati a Ciudad Juárez dal 1993 al 2010[4]. Secondo lo studio:

  • il femminicidio intimo ha rappresentato il 30,4% dei omicidi di quelle donne.
  • Il femminicidio sessuale sistematico si riferisce a modelli sistematici nell'uccisione di donne e bambine, compreso il rapimento, la violenza sessuale, la tortura e l'abbandono dei corpi in aree come deserti, discariche e fognature. Secondo lo studio, il femminicidio sessuale sistematico ha rappresentato il 31,8% dei omicidi di quelle donne.[5]
    total number of homicides in Juárez

Secondo Molly Molloy, professoressa alla New Mexico State University, la situazione a Juárez è una di "impunità indipendentemente dal genere"[6]. Dice infatti che:

"le vittime di omicidio femminile non hanno mai rappresentato più del 18% del totale delle vittime di omicidio a Ciudad Juárez, e negli ultimi due decenni quella figura media meno del 10%. Questo è meno degli Stati Uniti, dove circa il 20-25% delle persone che vengono uccise in un dato anno sono donne".[7]

Altri studiosi affermano anche che i tassi di femminicidio a Ciudad Juárez sono inferiori a quelli delle città americane come Houston e Ensenada e, come quota del totale dei tassi di omicidio, sono tipicamente inferiori ad altre città.[8]

Fattori contribuenti

Criminalità organizzata e traffico di droga

Main articles: Crime in Mexico, Juárez Cartel, and Mexican Drug War

I cartelli della droga operano a Juárez, il che ha comportato un elevato livello di violenza contro la popolazione locale, tra cui donne e ragazze.[9][10][11]

La misoginia è un tratto comune dell'attività dei gang.[11] Secondo uno studio condotto nel 2008, il 9,1% dei delitti contro le donne sono stati attribuiti alle attività di criminalità organizzata e traffico di droga.[12]

Industria Maquila

Le maquiladoras[13] sono note per il loro basso costo del lavoro e per le condizioni di sfruttamento, come la regolare violazione dei diritti umani di base, che spesso colpiscono le donne[14].

Donne e ragazze spesso migrano da villaggi o zone rurali in altre parti del Messico alla ricerca di lavoro nelle maquila.[15]

Secondo Livingston, questa migrazione di donne ha creato "un nuovo fenomeno di donne lavoratrici mobili, indipendenti e vulnerabili" in città come Ciudad Juárez.[15]

Molti delle vittime di omicidio a Ciudad Juárez erano dipendenti delle maquila[14]. Nonostante l'espansione dell'industria maquila, Juárez è rimasto una città relativamente povera e sviluppata, che mancava di infrastrutture in alcune parti come elettricità e strade pavimentate.[14] Come parte del loro tragitto quotidiano, molte lavoratrici delle maquila camminano attraverso tali zone per andare e tornare dai pullman aziendali, creando vulnerabilità alla vittimizzazione[15][14].

Inoltre, l'aumento della partecipazione delle donne al mercato del lavoro potrebbe essere anche un fattore contributivo alla vittimizzazione di donne e ragazze a causa della competizione per le risorse economiche in decenni in cui il tasso di disoccupazione maschile è stato elevato.[15][14]

NAFTA

L'implementazione del Trattato di Libero Commercio Nordamericano nel 1994 ha portato all'espansione dell'industria maquiladora e ha creato nuove opportunità di lavoro per le donne al di fuori delle case e nelle fabbriche.[16] La disponibilità di manodopera a basso costo ha reso attraente per i proprietari di aziende aprire fabbriche in Messico, e la disponibilità di lavoro a basso costo ha attirato molte, soprattutto donne, nei centri urbani di confine come Ciudad Juárez. La ricerca ha dimostrato correlazioni tra questioni economiche e politiche e violenza contro le donne lungo il confine.[16]

La accademica Katherine Pantaleo ha sostenuto che "NAFTA, come approccio capitalista, ha direttamente creato una svalutazione delle donne e un aumento di violenza di genere."[16] Inoltre, secondo Wright, nel periodo tra l'implementazione di NAFTA nel 1994 e nel 2001, "il tasso di omicidi per gli uomini è aumentato del 300 percento, mentre per le donne è aumentato del 600 percento."[17] Tali studi indicano l'importanza di esplorare gli effetti di NAFTA quando si considerano le possibili cause delle uccisioni di donne e ragazze a Ciudad Juárez.[16] Di conseguenza, si è suggerito che vengano apportate modifiche a NAFTA che includano disposizioni sui diritti umani.[16]

Ruoli di genere

Gli atteggiamenti socioculturali nei confronti dei ruoli di genere tradizionali hanno influenzato la violenza contro le donne.[18] Secondo Pantaleo,

"sotto la visione del patriarcato, in Messico si usano comunemente due espressioni per mostrare la differenza di status tra maschi e femmine; queste espressioni sono machismo e marianismo". "Il machismo è caratterizzato dal potere maschile e dall'aggressività, mentre il marianismo è caratterizzato dalla subordinazione e dai doveri domestici"[18]

Le donne che lasciano le loro case per cercare lavoro nell'industria delle maquila sfidano direttamente il marianismo. [19] Olivera suggerisce che questa mutata situazione sfida l'ipermascolinità.[20] Secondo Livingston, la violenza di genere a Ciudad Juárez può essere una reazione negativa in quanto le donne "ottengono una maggiore autonomia e indipendenza personale mentre gli uomini perdono terreno"[19].

Police and governmental response

The murder of women in Juárez has attracted global attention since 1993 given suspected police and government inaction to prevent the murders and bring perpetrators to justice.[2] Police and government officials have been accused of responding with indifference to the crimes against women as well as exhibiting tolerance for such crimes, conducting inadequate and negligent investigations, ineffectively responding to the crimes, and failing to prevent and protect women from violence.[21][22][23] According to Livingston, "In 1998 the National Commission for Human Rights issued a report charging gross irregularities and general negligence in state investigations, including the misidentification of corpses, failure to obtain expert tests on forensic evidence, failure to conduct autopsies or obtain semen analysis... failure to file written reports, [and] incompetence in keeping records of the rising tide of women murders."[21]

As a result of international attention, police and government officials have been politically pressured to respond to the murders.[24] In 2011, Amnesty International said, "The government [has] failed to take effective measures to investigate and bring to justice those responsible for the abduction and killing of three women in Ciudad Juárez... or to combat the ongoing pattern of violence against women and discrimination in the city.[25]

Convictions

According to Pantaleo in 2006, "While around 400 girls and women have been abducted and murdered, few arrests and convictions have resulted."[26] For convictions that have been made, there is a great deal of controversy that surrounds them.[26] Police have been accused of conducting rushed investigations with questionable methodology and integrity.[27] Further, suspects that have been apprehended have claimed that they were tortured into confessing.[27][26] This has caused uncertainty of the legitimacy of both investigations and convictions.[27][26]

In 1996, an Egyptian, Abdul Latif Sharif, was convicted of 3 murders and sentenced to a 30-year prison term.[27] After his arrest in 1995, the murders continued and authorities claimed that Sharif directed members of the "Los Rebeldes" gang to continue the murders while he was incarcerated.[28] These members were indicted and convicted as a result of this connection.[27] The gang members accused of carrying out murders under Sharif's orders claimed they were tortured while in police custody.[28] According to Monarrez Fragoso, "In the year 2000, it was known that the body of Elizabeth Castro Garcia, whose murder was attributed to Omar Sharif Latif, does not belong to her."[28]

In 2001, Victor Garcia Uribe and Gustavo Gonzalez Meza were apprehended for eight murders.[27] Gustavo Gonzalez Mesa died suspiciously while in police custody.[27] In 2004, Victor Garcia Uribe, a bus driver, was convicted of eight murders that took place in 2001.[27] He confessed to these murders, but claimed that he was tortured into confessing by police.[27]

In 2008, 16-year-old Ruby Frayre Escobedo was murdered by Sergio Barraza Bocanegra who was acquitted at his first trial for lack of evidence. Following two years of activism, a retrial convicted Bocanegra, who remained on the run. In 2010, Ruby's mother, Marisela Escobedo Ortiz, was assassinated by a shot to the head at point blank range while demonstrating for justice in front of the Governor's Palace in Chihuahua.[29][30]

International justice

There have been several international rulings against Mexico for its inadequate response to the increasing violence against women.[22][23] In 2004, under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) conducted an inquiry into the allegations that hundreds of murders of women and girls had taken place in the area of Ciudad Juarez since 1993 at the urging of several NGOs.[22] In order for the inquiry to take place it was required that there was reliable evidence that showed that Mexico was in violation of rights established by CEDAW.[22] The Committee analyzed the gender-based crimes occurring in Ciudad Juárez and found the two common forms were murder and disappearances. The Committee also analyzed the response of the government and found that their initial response was indifference and that the government exhibited tolerance of these crimes for years.[22]

Further, the Committee concluded that the measures undertaken by the Mexican government in response to gendered violence against women leading up to the time of their inquiry were, "few and ineffective at all levels of the State".[22] The Committee made several recommendations for Mexico to adhere to. Although these recommendations were not legally binding, they were influential in the public sphere.[22]

According to Amnesty International, "In [2009], the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled on the “cotton field” (Campo Algodonero) case that Mexico was guilty of discrimination and of failing to protect three young women murdered in 2001 in Ciudad Juárez or to ensure an effective investigation into their abduction and murder."[23] The Court ordered Mexico to conduct a new investigation of the murders, create a national memorial for the victims, pay reparations to the families of the victims, and to improve measures which prevent and adequately investigate the murder of women and girls.[31][23]

Local activism

2007 protest by some victims' families demanding punishment of the killers

There have been numerous local efforts that have helped draw attention to the femicides in Juárez.[1][32] In 1999, a group of feminist activists founded Casa Amiga, Juárez's first rape crisis and sexual assault center.[33] The center works to provide women in Juárez with a refuge against violence, therapy, legal council, and medical attention.[33] In 2002, a social justice movement named Ni Una Mas, which in Spanish means "not one more," was formed to raise international awareness to violence against women in Juárez.[32] The movement consists of a variety of domestic and international organizations and individual activists.[32] Ni Una Mas participants demand that the Mexican state implement strategies that prevent violence against women including murder and kidnappings and that the state conduct competent investigations on crimes already committed.[32] Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C., which in Spanish means "Our Daughters Back Home" also formed in response to the violence against women in Juárez.[33] Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C. has also worked to bring domestic and international media attention to the violence against women in Juárez.[34]

Cultural references

In television and radio

  • The American television series The Bridge (2013) used the disappearance of the girls of Juárez as part of the backdrop to a series of murders.
  • This American Life (Public Radio Exchange), Episode 506 - Secret Identity, Act Three: The Blonde Avenger, about a real life avenger with a secret identity against sexual violence from bus drivers in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. October 4, 2013. Podcast with transcript.
  • The Netflix series "Narcos: Mexico" Season 3 references the murders of the young women working in the maquiladoras as a subplot.

In film

  • The documentary Blood Rising (2013) directed by Mark McLoughlin, which examines the phenomenon of femicide in Juárez through the work of an artist, Brian Maguire.[35]
  • The film Backyard: El Traspatio (2009), directed by Carlos Carrera, is based on these events.
  • The film Bordertown (2007), starring Jennifer Lopez and Antonio Banderas, is based on these murders.
  • The film Señorita Extraviada/Missing Young Woman (2001) by Lourdes Portillo, is a documentary following the femicides of Juárez.
  • The documentary film Equal Means Equal (2016) directed by Kamala Lopez features a segment on the women of Juárez.
  • The documentary film Bajo Juárez: La Ciudad Devorando a Sus Hijas (2006) directed by José Antonio Cordero and Alejandra Sánchez hints at the many layers of political collusion and indifference from local, state and federal authorities.
  • The documentary Las tres muertes de Marisela Escobedo (2020) directed by Carlos Pérez Osorio looks the story of a woman in the midst of a tireless struggle to achieve justice and prevent her daughter's femicide from being forgotten in impunity.[36]
  • The documentary Flowers of the Desert: Stories from the Red Note (2021) directed by Estefanía Bonilla Hernández and produced by Craig Whitney, looks at the murder and disappearance of women along the border in Ciudad Juarez for the last 25 years, exploring the web of corruption, drug violence and sex trafficking at the root of the crimes.[37]

In music

In print

  • In Roberto Bolaño's novel, 2666 (2004), the murders serve as inspiration for a major section entitled "The Part about the Crimes", although the novel is actually set in "Santa Teresa", a fictionalized version of Ciudad Juárez.
  • Alicia Gaspar de Alba's mystery novel, Desert Blood (2005), addresses this topic.[39]
  • "Each and Her" (2010) by Valerie Martinez is a book-length poem that addresses the murders in the context of politics, gender oppression, mythology, art, and more.
  • "If I Die In Juárez" (2008) by Stella Pope Duarte
  • In Eve Ensler's Vagina Monologues, female homicides in Juárez feature in the monologue "Memory of Her Face".
  • "Señorita X - Song for the Yellow-Robed Girl from Juárez" (2007) by Juan Felipe Herrera
  • "The Daughters of Juárez: A True Story of Serial Murder South of the Border" (2007) by Teresa Rodríguez[40]
  • The Way She Spoke written by Isaac Gomez
  • The Killing Fields: Harvest of Women by Diana Washington Valdez
  • Suffering and Salvation in Ciudad Juarez by Nancy Pineda-Madrid reads the feminicide theologically and makes advances on the Catholic soteriology

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 "Mexico: Justice fails in Ciudad Juárez and the city of Chihuahua". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Widyono, Monique (2008). "Conceptualizing Femicide". Strengthening Understanding of Femicide: Using Research to Galvanize Action and Accountability (PDF). Seattle, Washington: PATH. pp. 7–25. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  3. ↑ Villalpando, Rubén (January 11, 2021). "La Jornada - Con Corral, 10 mil 42 asesinatos en Chihuahua; 95%, impunes". jornada.com.mx (in español). La Jornada. Retrieved January 11, 2021.
  4. ↑ Monarrez Fragoso, Julia (2008). "An Analysis of Feminicide in Ciudad Juárez: 1993–2007" (PDF). Strengthening Understanding of Femicide: Using Research to Galvanize Action and Accountability: 78–84. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  5. ↑ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Fragoso2
  6. ↑ Molloy, Molly. "Juárez murders: Impunity regardless of gender : Grassroots Press". Archived from the original on 16 marzo 2014. Retrieved 2019-10-18.
  7. ↑ "Molly Molloy: La storia dei femminicidi di Juárez è un 'mito'". The Texas Observer (in English). 09-01-2014. Retrieved 2019-10-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ Albuquerque, Pedro H.; Vemala, Prasad (2015-11-09). "Femicide Rates in Mexican Cities along the US-Mexico Border: Do the Maquiladora Industries Play a Role?" (in English). Rochester, NY. SSRN 1112308. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ↑ Monarrez Fragoso, Julia (April 2002). "Serial Sexual Femicide in Ciudad Juárez: 1993-2001". Debate Feminista. 25. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  10. ↑ Pantaleo, Katherine (2010). "Gendered Violence: An Analysis of the Maquiladora Murders". International Criminal Justice Review. 20 (4): 349365. doi:10.1177/1057567710380914. S2CID 144818023.
  11. ↑ 11,0 11,1 Olivera, Mercedes (2006). "Violencia Femicida : Violence Against Women and Mexico's Structural Crisis". Latin American Perspectives. 33 (104): 104–114. doi:10.1177/0094582X05286092. S2CID 62803124.
  12. ↑ Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Fragoso3
  13. ↑ Le maquiladoras sono stabilimenti industriali posseduti o controllati da soggetti stranieri, in cui avvengono trasformazioni o assemblaggi di componenti temporaneamente esportati da paesi maggiormente industrializzati in un regime di duty free ed esenzione fiscale. I prodotti assemblati o trasformati dovranno successivamente essere esportati all'estero. Questo fenomeno è caratteristico tra il Messico e gli Stati Uniti.
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 14,3 14,4 Pantaleo, Katherine (2010). "Gendered Violence: An Analysis of the Maquiladora Murders". International Criminal Justice Review. 20 (4): 349365. doi:10.1177/1057567710380914. S2CID 144818023.
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 15,3 Livingston, Jessica (2004). "Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly Line". Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies. 25 (1): 59–76. doi:10.1353/fro.2004.0034. JSTOR 3347254. S2CID 144659311.
  16. ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 16,3 16,4 Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Pantaleo25
  17. ↑ Wright, Melissa M. (2006). "Public Women, Profit, and Femicide in Northern Mexico". South Atlantic Quarterly. 1054 (4): 681–698. doi:10.1215/00382876-2006-003.
  18. ↑ 18,0 18,1 Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Pantaleo23
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 Errore nelle note: Errore nell'uso del marcatore <ref>: non è stato indicato alcun testo per il marcatore Livingston22
  20. ↑ Olivera, Mercedes (2006). "Violencia Femicida : Violence Against Women and Mexico's Structural Crisis". Latin American Perspectives. 33 (104): 104–114. doi:10. 1177/0094582X05286092. S2CID 62803124. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help)
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 Livingston, Jessica (2004). "Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly Line". Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies. 25 (1): 59–76. doi:10.1353/fro.2004.0034. JSTOR 3347254. S2CID 144659311.
  22. ↑ 22,0 22,1 22,2 22,3 22,4 22,5 22,6 Sokhi-Bulley, Bal (2006). "The Optional Protocol to CEDAW: First Steps". Human Rights Law Review. 6 (1): 143–159. doi:10.1093/hrlr/ngi029.
  23. ↑ 23,0 23,1 23,2 23,3 "Mexico - Amnesty International Report 2010". Amnesty International. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
  24. ↑ "Ten years of abductions and murders of women in Ciudad Juárez and Chihuahua: Developments as of September 2003". Amnesty International. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
  25. ↑ "Annual Report: Mexico 2011". Amnesty International. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  26. ↑ 26,0 26,1 26,2 26,3 Pantaleo, Katie (2006). "Gendered Violence: Murder in the Maquiladoras" (PDF). Sociological Viewpoints. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  27. ↑ 27,0 27,1 27,2 27,3 27,4 27,5 27,6 27,7 27,8 Simmons, William (2006). "Remedies for the Women of Ciudad Juárez through the Inter-American Court of Human Rights" (PDF). Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights. 4 (3): 492517. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
  28. ↑ 28,0 28,1 28,2 Monarrez Fragoso, Julia (April 2002). "Serial Sexual Femicide in Ciudad Juárez: 1993-2001". Debate Feminista. 25. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  29. ↑ "Matan a la activista que pedía justicia por su hija". Informador.com.mx. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
  30. ↑ "Matahan a activista Marixsela Escobedo". El Universal. digital edition. 16 December 2010. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
  31. ↑ Ortega Lozano, Marisela (24 August 2011). "130 women killed in Juárez this year; Chihuahua AG says fight for women's rights painful and slow". El Paso Times. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  32. ↑ 32,0 32,1 32,2 32,3 Wright, Melissa M. (2006). "Public Women, Profit, and Femicide in Northern Mexico". South Atlantic Quarterly. 1054 (4): 681–698. doi:10.1215/00382876-2006-003.
  33. ↑ 33,0 33,1 33,2 Wright, Melissa W. (December 2002). "A Manifest against Femicide". Antipode. 33 (3): 550–566. doi:10.1111/1467-8330.00198. PMID 19165968.
  34. ↑ Blanco, Lorenzo; Sandra M. Villa (October 2008). "Sources of crime in the state of Veracruz: The role of female labor force participation and wage inequality". Feminist Economics. 14 (3): 51–75. doi:10.1080/13545700802075143. S2CID 154371170.
  35. ↑ Vulliamy, Ed (2014-05-04). "Painted back to life: Brian Maguire's portraits of the victims of Mexico's 'feminocidio'". The Guardian (in British English). ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-10-18.
  36. ↑ ""Las tres muertes de Marisela Escobedo", retrato de feminicidios en México". EFE. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  37. ↑ "Imperative Entertainment to Launch Podcast 'The Red Note' in English and Spanish'". Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2020-09-10.
  38. ↑ Presley, Katie (10 August 2015). "TWIABP: 'January 10, 2014'". NPR.
  39. ↑ Alicia Gaspar de Alba (2010-10-15). "Home - Desert Blood: The Juarez Murders". Desert Blood. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  40. ↑ Rodríguez, Teresa; Montané, Diana; Pulitzer, Lisa (2007). The Daughters of Juárez: A True Story of Serial Murder South of the Border. Atria Books. pp. passim. ISBN 978-0-7432-9203-0. oscar maynez juarez.
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