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===In creative, practical, and therapeutic disciplines=== ====Architecture and design==== {{See also|Systemic design|Metadesign}} Cybernetics was an influence on thinking in architecture and design in the decades after the Second World War. Ashby and Pask were drawn on by design theorists such as [[Horst Rittel]],<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Thomas|last1=Fischer|first2=Laurence D.|last2=Richards|title=From Goal-Oriented to Constraint-Oriented Design: The Cybernetic Intersection of Design Theory and Systems Theory|journal=Leonardo|date=2014-06-09|issn=0024-094X|pages=36–41|volume=50|issue=1|doi=10.1162/leon_a_00862|s2cid=57565090|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1001054}}</ref> [[Christopher Alexander]]<ref>Upitis, A. (2013). Alexander's Choice: How Architecture avoided Computer Aided Design c. 1962. In A. Dutta (Ed.), A Second Modernism: MIT, Architecture, and the 'Techno-Social' Moment (pp. 474-505). Cambridge, Massachusetts: SA+P Press.</ref> and [[Bruce Archer]].<ref>Boyd Davis, S., & Gristwood, S. (2016). The Structure of Design Processes: Ideal and Reality in Bruce Archer’s 1968 Doctoral Thesis. In Proceedings of DRS 2016, Design Research Society 50th Anniversary Conference, Brighton, UK. 27–30 June 2016. Retrieved from http://www.drs2016.org/240/</ref> Pask was a consultant to [[Nicholas Negroponte]]'s [[Architecture Machine Group]], forerunner of the [[MIT Media Lab]], and collaborated with architect [[Cedric Price]] and theatre director [[Joan Littlewood]] on the influential [[Fun Palace]] project during the 1960s.<ref>Mathews, S. (2007). From Agit-Prop to Free Space: The Architecture of Cedric Price. London: Black Dog. Isabelle Doucet (University of Manchester, UK), Samantha Hardingham (Architectural Association, London, UK), Tanja Herdt (TU Munich, Germany), Jim Njoo (École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Paris-La Villette, France), Ben Sweeting (University of Brighton, UK). [https://www.cca.qc.ca/en/events/40500/an-afternoon-with-cedric-price-no-1 An Afternoon with Cedric Price no. 1, CCA c/o Lisboa]. Panel discussion moderated by Kim Förster, CCA Associate Director, Research. Organised by the Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal and Artéria, Lisbon. Held at Barbas Lopes Arquitectos. Part of the Lisbon Architecture Triennale 2016. 22 October 2016.</ref> Pask's 1950s Musicolour installation was the inspiration for John and Julia Frazer's work on Price's Generator project.<ref>Furtado Cardoso Lopes, G. M. (2008). Cedric Price's Generator and the Frazers' systems research. Technoetic Arts, 6(1), 55-72. {{doi|10.1386/tear.6.1.55_1}}</ref> The cybernetic study of design has contributed to design methods research<ref>Fischer, T., & Herr, C. M. (Eds.). (2019). Design Cybernetics: Navigating the new. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18557-2; Glanville, R. (1999). Researching design and designing research. Design Issues, 15(2), 80-91. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511844 </ref> and to the development of [[systemic design]] practices. ====Creative arts==== {{Main|Cybernetic art}} {{See also|telematic art|interactive art|systems art}} [[Nicolas Schöffer]]'s ''CYSP I'' (1956) was perhaps the first artwork to explicitly employ cybernetic principles (CYSP is an acronym that joins the first two letters of the words "CYbernetic" and "SPatiodynamic").<ref>{{cite web|title=CYSP I, the first cybernetic sculpture of art's history|url=http://www.olats.org/schoffer/cyspe.htm|publisher=Leonardo/OLATS - Observatoire Leonardo des arts et des technosciences}}</ref> The prominent and influential [[Cybernetic Serendipity]] exhibition was held at the [[Institute of Contemporary Arts]] in 1968 curated by [[Jasia Reichardt]], including Schöffer's ''CYSP I'' and Gordon Pask's ''Colloquy of Mobiles'' installation. Pask's reflections on ''Colloquy'' connected it to his earlier ''Musicolour'' installation and to what he termed "aesthetically potent environments", a concept that connected this artistic work to his concerns with teaching and learning.<ref>Pask, G. (1971). A comment, a case history and a plan. In J. Reichardt (Ed.), Cybernetics, art and ideas (pp. 76-99). London: Studio Vista. Fernandez, M. (2009). “Aesthetically-Potent Environments” or How Pask Detourned Instrumental Cybernetics. In P. Brown, C. Gere, N. Lambert & C. Mason (Eds.), White Heat Cold Logic: British Computer Art 1960-1980 Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.</ref> The artist [[Roy Ascott]] elaborated an extensive theory of cybernetic art in "Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision" (''Cybernetica'', Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics (Namur), Volume IX, No.4, 1966; Volume X No.1, 1967) and in "The Cybernetic Stance: My Process and Purpose" (''Leonardo'' Vol 1, No 2, 1968). Art historian [[Edward A. Shanken]] has written about the history of art and cybernetics in essays including "Cybernetics and Art: Cultural Convergence in the 1960s"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.artexetra.com//CyberneticsArtCultConv.pdf |title=Cybernetics and Art: Cultural Convergence in the 1960s |access-date=2012-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229131650/http://www.artexetra.com//CyberneticsArtCultConv.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=From Energy to Information: Representation in Science, Technology, Art, and Literature |year=2002 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |pages=255–277 |editor=Bruce Clarke |editor2=Linda Dalrymple Henderson |editor2-link=Linda Dalrymple Henderson }}</ref> and ''From Cybernetics to Telematics: The Art, Pedagogy, and Theory of Roy Ascott'' (2003),<ref>{{cite book|last=Ascott|first=Roy|title=Telematic Embrace: Visionary Theories of Art, Technology, and Consciousness|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|editor=Edward A. Shanken}}</ref> which traces the trajectory of Ascott's work from cybernetic art to [[telematic art]] (art using computer networking as its medium, a precursor to [[net.art]]). Others in the creative arts who are associated with cybernetics, include [[Vanilla Beer]], [[Herbert Brün|Herbert Brun]], [[Brian Eno]], [[Pauline Oliveros]], [[Tom Scholte]], and [[Stephen Willats]]. ====Education==== {{See also|Radical constructivism}} Cybernetics has been influential in the development of educational technology, notably in the work of Gordon Pask, and in theories of teaching and learning, including Pask's [[Conversation theory|Conversation Theory]], Ernst von Glasersfeld's [[Radical constructivism|Radical Constructivism]], and [[Gregory Bateson|Gregory Bateson's]] conception of [[Deuterolearning|deuterolearning]]. ==== Management and organisation==== {{Main|Management cybernetics}} Management as a field of study covers the task of managing a multitude of systems (often [[business systems]]), which presents a wide natural overlap with many of the classical concepts of cybernetics. Management cybernetics includes approaches such as Stafford Beer's [[Viable system model|Viable System Model]] and [[Syntegrity|Syntegration]]. ==== Psychotherapy==== {{Main|Family therapy|Systemic therapy (psychotherapy)|Method of levels}} The development of [[family therapy]] was significantly influenced by cybernetics through the work of Gregory Bateson, as was the work of [[R. D. Laing]]. The method of levels is an approach to [[psychotherapy]] based on [[perceptual control theory]] where the therapist aims to help the patient shift their awareness to higher levels of perception in order to resolve conflicts and allow reorganization to take place.
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