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=== Definitions === Cybernetics has been defined in a variety of ways, reflecting "the richness of its conceptual base".<ref>"It seems that cybernetics is many different things to many different people. But this is because of the richness of its conceptual base; and I believe that this is very good, otherwise cybernetics would become a somewhat boring exercise. However, all of those perspectives arise from one central theme; that of circularity." Foerster, H. von (2003). Ethics and second-order cybernetics, in Understanding understanding: Essays on cybernetics and cognition. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. P. 288.</ref> One of the most well known definitions is that of [[Norbert Wiener]] who characterised cybernetics as concerned with "control and communication in the animal and the machine".<ref name="W1948">{{cite book |last = Wiener |first = Norbert |author-link = Norbert Wiener |title = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine |year = 1948 |publisher = [[MIT Press]] |location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |title-link = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine }}</ref> Another early definition is that of the [[Macy conferences|Macy]] cybernetics conferences, where cybernetics was understood as the study of "circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems".<ref>von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1951). Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the seventh conference. New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation.</ref> [[Margaret Mead]] emphasised the role of cybernetics as "a form of cross-disciplinary thought which made it possible for members of many disciplines to communicate with each other easily in a language which all could understand".<ref>Mead, M. (1968). The cybernetics of cybernetics. In H. von Foerster, J. D. White, L. J. Peterson, & J. K. Russell (Eds.), Purposive Systems (pp. 1-11). Spartan Books.</ref> Other definitions include:<ref>See also: https://asc-cybernetics.org/definitions/</ref> “the art of governing or the science of government” ([[André-Marie Ampère]]); "the art of steersmanship" ([[Ross Ashby]]); "the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing, and processing information so as to use it for control" ([[Andrey Kolmogorov]]); "a branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness, and information, focuses on forms and the patterns that connect" ([[Gregory Bateson]]); "the art of securing efficient operation" ([[Louis Couffignal]]);<ref>''"La cybernétique est l’art de l’efficacité de l’action"'' originally a French definition formulated in 1953, lit. "Cybernetics is the art of effective action"</ref><ref name="Couffignal">Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", ''The First International Congress on Cybernetics'', Namur, Belgium, June 26–29, 1956, Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1958, pp. 46-54.</ref> "the art of effective organization." ([[Stafford Beer]]); "the science or the art of manipulating defensible metaphors; showing how they may be constructed and what can be inferred as a result of their existence" ([[Gordon Pask]]);<ref>Pask, G. (1975). The cybernetics of human learning and performance: A guide to theory and research. Hutchinson. Page 13.</ref> "the art of creating equilibrium in a world of constraints and possibilities" ([[Ernst von Glasersfeld]]); "the science and art of understanding" ([[Humberto Maturana]]); "the ability to cure all temporary truth of eternal triteness" ([[Herbert Brun]]); "a way of thinking about ways of thinking (of which it is one)" ([[Larry Richards]]);<ref>Richards, Larry (2001). The Praxis of Thinking: Deliberate vs. Improvised. Online Proceedings of the American Society for Cybernetics 2001 Conference, Vancouver, May 2001. http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/2001/Richards.htm</ref>
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