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== History == === Precursors === [[File:ARAGO Francois Astronomie Populaire T1 page 0067 Fig16-17.jpg|thumb|upright|Ctesibius' water clock, as visualized by the 17th-century French architect Claude Perrault]] The word ''cybernetics'' was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by [[Plato]] in Republic<ref>Book VI, The philosophy of government</ref> and in [[First Alcibiades|''Alcibiades'']] to signify the [[governance]] of people.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite web |url = http://www.jurlandia.org/cybsoc.htm |last = Johnson |first = Barnabas |title = The Cybernetics of Society |access-date = 8 January 2012 }}</ref> The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge. The first artificial automatic regulatory system was a [[water clock]], invented by the mechanician [[Ktesibios]]; based on a tank which poured water into a reservoir before using it to run the mechanism, it used a cone-shaped float to monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Devices constructed by [[Ktesibios]] and others such as [[Hero of Alexandria]], [[Philo of Byzantium]] and [[Su Song]] are early examples of cybernetic principles in action. [[File:James Watt.jpg|thumb|upright|James Watt]] In the late 18th century [[James Watt (inventor)|James Watt]]'s steam engine was equipped with a [[governor (device)|governor]] (1775–1800), a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. In 1868 [[James Clerk Maxwell]] published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. [[Jakob von Uexküll]] applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (''Funktionskreis'') in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. Other precursors include: [[Kenneth Craik]] and [[Ștefan Odobleja]]. ===Foundations=== {{See also|Macy conferences|Ratio Club}} [[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|Norbert Wiener]] The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]] –based on the research on living organisms that [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] did in Mexico–; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]]. In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]]. The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept. The foundations of cybernetics were developed through a series of transdisciplinary conferences funded by the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, between 1946 and 1953. The conferences were chaired by [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]] and had participants included [[W. Ross Ashby|Ross Ashby]], [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Heinz von Foerster]], [[Margaret Mead]], [[John von Neumann]], and [[Norbert Wiener]]. In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]] and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]''.<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]]. In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin). Published in 1954, [[Qian Xuesen]] published work "Engineering Cybernetics" was the basis of science in segregating the engineering concepts of Cybernetics from the theoretical understanding of Cybernetics as described so far historically. The Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958. ===Cybernetics in the soviet union=== {{Main|Cybernetics in the Soviet Union}} [[Cybernetics in the Soviet Union]] was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics.<ref>''Философский словарь'' (Philosophical dictionary), 1954; "Cybernetics", ''The Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' (1979)</ref> In the mid to late 1950s [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. Soviet cybernetics incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glushkov |first=Viktor |date=1966 |title=Introduction to Cybernetics |location=New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0122868504}}</ref> The design of self-regulating control systems for a real-time planned [[Economic cybernetics|economy]] was explored by economist [[Oskar Lange]], cyberneticist [[Viktor Glushkov]], and other [[Soviet cyberneticists]] during the 1960s. ===Split from artificial intelligence=== [[Artificial intelligence]] (AI) was founded as a distinct discipline at the [[Dartmouth workshop]] in 1956. After some uneasy coexistence, AI gained funding and prominence. Consequently, cybernetic sciences such as the study of [[artificial neural network]]s were downplayed; the discipline shifted into the world of social sciences and therapy.<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal|last=Cariani|first=Peter|date=15 March 2010|title=On the importance of being emergent|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani|journal=Constructivist Foundations|volume=5|issue=2|page=89|access-date=13 August 2012|quote=artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref> === Further development and new directions === {{See also|Second-order cybernetics|}} In the 1970s, [[new cybernetics|new cyberneticians]] emerged in multiple fields, but especially in [[biology]]. The ideas of [[Humberto Maturana|Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela|Varela]] and [[Henri Atlan|Atlan]], according to Jean-Pierre Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature - organizations he has not himself invented".<ref name="JPD86">Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil & [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] eds., ''Evolution, Order and Complexity'', 1986.</ref> However, during the 1980s the question of whether the features of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.<ref name="JPD86" /> In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself with the interaction of autonomous political [[actor]]s and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and with the ways in which systems build upon themselves".<ref name="PHJ 88">Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in: ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'', Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.</ref> One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Hans van der Zouwen]], according to Bailey (1994),<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref> was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with the environment. This provides an [[epistemology|epistemological]] foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent. Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the ''micro-macro gap''. That is, it links the individual with the society".<ref name="KB 94" /> Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics to the new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking involve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and the factor which guides the steering decisions; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systems which are trying to steer each other".<ref name="KB 94" /> Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as [[game theory]] (the analysis of group interaction), [[evolutionarily stable strategy|systems of feedback in evolution]], and [[metamaterials]] (the study of materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest in the field.<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |last = Kelly |first = Kevin |title = Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world |publisher = Addison-Wesley |location = Boston |year = 1994 |isbn = 978-0-201-48340-6 |oclc = 221860672 |url = https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell }}</ref>
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