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== Overview == === Definitions === Cybernetics has been defined in a variety of ways, reflecting "the richness of its conceptual base".<ref>"It seems that cybernetics is many different things to many different people. But this is because of the richness of its conceptual base; and I believe that this is very good, otherwise cybernetics would become a somewhat boring exercise. However, all of those perspectives arise from one central theme; that of circularity." Foerster, H. von (2003). Ethics and second-order cybernetics, in Understanding understanding: Essays on cybernetics and cognition. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. P. 288.</ref> One of the most well known definitions is that of [[Norbert Wiener]] who characterised cybernetics as concerned with "control and communication in the animal and the machine".<ref name="W1948">{{cite book |last = Wiener |first = Norbert |author-link = Norbert Wiener |title = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine |year = 1948 |publisher = [[MIT Press]] |location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |title-link = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine }}</ref> Another early definition is that of the [[Macy conferences|Macy]] cybernetics conferences, where cybernetics was understood as the study of "circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems".<ref>von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1951). Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the seventh conference. New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation.</ref> [[Margaret Mead]] emphasised the role of cybernetics as "a form of cross-disciplinary thought which made it possible for members of many disciplines to communicate with each other easily in a language which all could understand".<ref>Mead, M. (1968). The cybernetics of cybernetics. In H. von Foerster, J. D. White, L. J. Peterson, & J. K. Russell (Eds.), Purposive Systems (pp. 1-11). Spartan Books.</ref> Other definitions include:<ref>See also: https://asc-cybernetics.org/definitions/</ref> “the art of governing or the science of government” ([[André-Marie Ampère]]); "the art of steersmanship" ([[Ross Ashby]]); "the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing, and processing information so as to use it for control" ([[Andrey Kolmogorov]]); "a branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness, and information, focuses on forms and the patterns that connect" ([[Gregory Bateson]]); "the art of securing efficient operation" ([[Louis Couffignal]]);<ref>''"La cybernétique est l’art de l’efficacité de l’action"'' originally a French definition formulated in 1953, lit. "Cybernetics is the art of effective action"</ref><ref name="Couffignal">Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", ''The First International Congress on Cybernetics'', Namur, Belgium, June 26–29, 1956, Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1958, pp. 46-54.</ref> "the art of effective organization." ([[Stafford Beer]]); "the science or the art of manipulating defensible metaphors; showing how they may be constructed and what can be inferred as a result of their existence" ([[Gordon Pask]]);<ref>Pask, G. (1975). The cybernetics of human learning and performance: A guide to theory and research. Hutchinson. Page 13.</ref> "the art of creating equilibrium in a world of constraints and possibilities" ([[Ernst von Glasersfeld]]); "the science and art of understanding" ([[Humberto Maturana]]); "the ability to cure all temporary truth of eternal triteness" ([[Herbert Brun]]); "a way of thinking about ways of thinking (of which it is one)" ([[Larry Richards]]);<ref>Richards, Larry (2001). The Praxis of Thinking: Deliberate vs. Improvised. Online Proceedings of the American Society for Cybernetics 2001 Conference, Vancouver, May 2001. http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/2001/Richards.htm</ref> === Etymology === [[File:Ideal feedback model.svg|thumb|Simple feedback model. AB < 0 for [[negative feedback]].]] The word ''cybernetics'' comes from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] κυβερνητική (''kybernētikḗ''), meaning "governance", i.e., all that are pertinent to κυβερνάω (''kybernáō''), the latter meaning "to steer, navigate or govern", hence κυβέρνησις (''kybérnēsis''), meaning "government", is the government while κυβερνήτης (''kybernḗtēs'') is the governor, pilot, or "helmsperson" of the "ship". French physicist and mathematician [[André-Marie Ampère]] first coined the word "cybernetique" in his 1834 essay ''Essai sur la philosophie des sciences'' to describe the science of civil government.<ref>[[H.S. Tsien]]. ''[[Engineering Cybernetics]]'', Preface vii. McGraw Hill, 1954.</ref> The term was used by [[Norbert Wiener]], in his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine|Cybernetics]]'', to define the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. In the book, he states: "Although the term ''cybernetics'' does not date further back than the summer of 1947, we shall find it convenient to use in referring to earlier epochs of the development of the field."<ref name="W1948" /> ===Closely related fields=== ====Systems==== Cybernetics is sometimes understood within the context of the broad field of [[Systems science|Systems]].<ref> e.g. by Ray Ison: Ison, R. (2012). A cybersystemic framework for practical action. In: Murray, Joy; Cawthorne, Glenn; Dey, Christopher and Andrew, Chris eds. Enough for All Forever. A Handbook for Learning about Sustainability. Champaign, Illinois: Common Ground Publishing, pp. 269–284.</ref><ref>Checkland, P. (1981). Systems thinking, systems practice. Wiley, Chichester.</ref> Systems approaches influenced by cybernetics include: * [[Critical systems thinking]], which incorporates the [[Viable System Model]] from the work of [[Stafford Beer]]. * [[Systemic design]], which has drawn on the work of cyberneticians [[Ranulph Glanville]], [[Klaus Krippendorff]], and [[Paul Pangaro]].<ref>Jones, P. H., & Kijima, K. (Eds.). (2018). Systemic design: Theory, methods, and practice. Springer, p. ix. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55639-8</ref> * [[System dynamics]], which is based on the concept of causal feedback loops. ====Other intersecting fields==== Cybernetics' broad scope and tendency to transgress disciplinary norms<ref>Pickering, A. (2010). The cybernetic brain: Sketches of another future. University of Chicago Press. Page 9</ref> means its own boundaries have shifted over time and can be difficult to define. Many fields trace their origins in whole or part to work carried out in cybernetics, or were partially absorbed into cybernetics when it was developed. These include: * [[Artificial intelligence]] * [[Bionics]] * [[Cognitive science]] * [[Control theory]] * [[Complexity science]] * [[Computer science]] * [[Information theory]] * [[Robotics]] ===Key concepts=== Key concepts in cybernetics include: ====Black Box==== {{Main|Black box}} ====Distinction==== {{See also|Laws of Form}} [[G. Spencer-Brown|George Spencer Brown's]] Laws of Form became influential in cybernetics, including in the work of [[Francisco Varela]], and [[Louis Kauffman]]. ====Eigenform==== {{Main|Eigenform}} The notion of eigenform is an example of a self-referential system that produces a stable form. It plays an important role in the work of Heinz von Foerster<ref>Foerster, Heinz von. (2003). Objects: Tokens for (eigen-)behaviors. In Understanding understanding: Essays on cybernetics and cognition (pp. 261-272). Springer-Verlag.</ref> and is "inextricably linked with second order cybernetics".<ref>Kauffman, L. H. (2003). Eigenforms: Objects as tokens for eigenbehaviors. Cybernetics and Human Knowing, 10(3/4), 73-90.</ref> ====Feedback and circular causality==== {{Main|Feedback}} Feedback is a process where the outputs of a system are taken as new inputs for the same system. ====Homeostasis==== {{Main|Homeostasis}} ====Law of requisite variety==== {{Main|Variety (cybernetics)}} ====Self-organisation==== {{Main|Self-organisation in cybernetics}}
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