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{{Short description|Transdisciplinary field concerned with regulatory and purposive systems}} {{for|organisms with both organic and mechanical parts|cyborg}} {{Other uses}} [[File:Cybernetics.jpg|thumb|Principle diagram of a cybernetic system with a feedback loop]] {{Complex systems}} '''Cybernetics''' is a wide-ranging field concerned with regulatory and purposive [[systems]]. The core concept of cybernetics is circular causality or [[feedback]]—where the observed outcomes of actions are taken as inputs for further action in ways that support the pursuit and maintenance of particular conditions, or their disruption. Cybernetics is named after an example of circular causality, that of steering a ship,{{efn|The ancient Greek κυβερνήτης (''kybernḗtēs'') means helmsperson.}} where the helmsperson maintains a steady course in a changing environment by adjusting their steering in continual response to the effect it is observed as having.<ref>Gage, S. (2007). The boat/helmsman. Technoetic Arts: A Journal of Speculative Research, 5(1), 15-24. https://doi.org/10.1386/tear.5.1.15_1</ref> Other examples of circular causal feedback include: technological devices such as thermostats (where the action of a heater responds to measured changes in temperature, regulating the temperature of the room within a set range); biological examples such as the coordination of volitional movement through the [[nervous system]]; and processes of social interaction such as conversation.<ref>Dubberly, H., & Pangaro, P. (2019). Cybernetics and design: Conversations for action. In T. Fischer & C. M. Herr (Eds.), Design cybernetics: Navigating the new (pp. 85-99). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18557-2_4</ref> Cybernetics is concerned with feedback processes such as steering however they are embodied,<ref>Ashby, W. R. (1956). An introduction to cybernetics. London: Chapman & Hall.</ref> including in ecological, technological, [[Biological cybernetics|biological]], cognitive, and [[social systems]], and in the context of practical activities such as designing, learning, [[Management cybernetics|managing]], [[Conversation theory|conversation]], and the practice of cybernetics itself. Cybernetics' [[transdisciplinary]]<ref name="transdisciplinary">{{cite journal |last = Müller |first = Albert |title = A Brief History of the BCL |journal = Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften |year = 2000 |volume = 11 |issue = 1 |pages = 9–30 |url = http://bcl.ece.illinois.edu/mueller/index.htm |access-date = 2012-06-06 |archive-date = 2012-07-22 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120722174103/http://bcl.ece.illinois.edu/mueller/index.htm |url-status = dead }}</ref> and "antidisciplinary"<ref>"Cybernetics spilled out all over the disciplinary map. It was a strongly interdisciplinary field, or, better, an antidisciplinary one: it did not aggregate disiplinary perspectives; it rode roughshod over disciplinary boundaries..." Pickering, A. (2010). The cybernetic brain: Sketches of another future. University of Chicago Press. Page 9</ref> character has meant that it intersects with a number of other fields, leading to it having both wide influence and diverse interpretations. Cybernetics has its origins in exchanges between numerous fields during the 1940s, including anthropology, mathematics, neuroscience, psychology, and engineering. Initial developments were consolidated through meetings such as the [[Macy Conferences]] and the [[Ratio Club]]. At its most prominent during the 1950s and 1960s, cybernetics is a precursor to fields such as [[computing]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[complexity science]], and [[robotics]] amongst others. It is closely related to [[systems science]], which was developed in parallel. Early focuses included purposeful behaviour,<ref>Rosenblueth, A., Wiener, N., & Bigelow, J. (1943). Behavior, Purpose and Teleology. Philosophy of Science, 10(1), 18-24. Retrieved August 1, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/184878</ref> [[neural networks]], [[heterarchy]],<ref>"A Heterarchy of Values Determined by the Topology of Nervous Nets". In: Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 7, 1945, 89–93.</ref> [[information theory]], and [[self-organising systems]]. As cybernetics developed, it became broader in scope to include work in domains such as design,<ref>Fischer, T., & Herr, C. M. (Eds.). (2019). Design Cybernetics: Navigating the new. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18557-2</ref> [[family therapy]], management and organisation, pedagogy, [[sociocybernetics|sociology]], and the creative arts.<ref>Scholte, T. (2020), "A proposal for the role of the arts in a new phase of second-order cybernetics", Kybernetes, Vol. 49 No. 8, pp. 2153-2170. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-03-2019-0172</ref> At the same time, questions arising from circular causality have been explored in relation to the philosophy of science, ethics, and constructivist approaches, while cybernetics has also been associated with counter-cultural movements.<ref>Dubberly, H., & Pangaro, P. (2015). How cybernetics connects computing, counterculture, and design. In Hippie Modernism: The Struggle for Utopia. Walker Art Center. http://www.dubberly.com/articles/cybernetics-and-counterculture.html</ref> Contemporary cybernetics thus varies widely in scope and focus, with cyberneticians variously adopting and combining technical, scientific, philosophical, creative, and critical approaches. == Overview == === Definitions === Cybernetics has been defined in a variety of ways, reflecting "the richness of its conceptual base".<ref>"It seems that cybernetics is many different things to many different people. But this is because of the richness of its conceptual base; and I believe that this is very good, otherwise cybernetics would become a somewhat boring exercise. However, all of those perspectives arise from one central theme; that of circularity." Foerster, H. von (2003). Ethics and second-order cybernetics, in Understanding understanding: Essays on cybernetics and cognition. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. P. 288.</ref> One of the most well known definitions is that of [[Norbert Wiener]] who characterised cybernetics as concerned with "control and communication in the animal and the machine".<ref name="W1948">{{cite book |last = Wiener |first = Norbert |author-link = Norbert Wiener |title = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine |year = 1948 |publisher = [[MIT Press]] |location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |title-link = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine }}</ref> Another early definition is that of the [[Macy conferences|Macy]] cybernetics conferences, where cybernetics was understood as the study of "circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems".<ref>von Foerster, H., Mead, M., & Teuber, H. L. (Eds.). (1951). Cybernetics: Circular causal and feedback mechanisms in biological and social systems. Transactions of the seventh conference. New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation.</ref> [[Margaret Mead]] emphasised the role of cybernetics as "a form of cross-disciplinary thought which made it possible for members of many disciplines to communicate with each other easily in a language which all could understand".<ref>Mead, M. (1968). The cybernetics of cybernetics. In H. von Foerster, J. D. White, L. J. Peterson, & J. K. Russell (Eds.), Purposive Systems (pp. 1-11). Spartan Books.</ref> Other definitions include:<ref>See also: https://asc-cybernetics.org/definitions/</ref> “the art of governing or the science of government” ([[André-Marie Ampère]]); "the art of steersmanship" ([[Ross Ashby]]); "the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing, and processing information so as to use it for control" ([[Andrey Kolmogorov]]); "a branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness, and information, focuses on forms and the patterns that connect" ([[Gregory Bateson]]); "the art of securing efficient operation" ([[Louis Couffignal]]);<ref>''"La cybernétique est l’art de l’efficacité de l’action"'' originally a French definition formulated in 1953, lit. "Cybernetics is the art of effective action"</ref><ref name="Couffignal">Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", ''The First International Congress on Cybernetics'', Namur, Belgium, June 26–29, 1956, Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1958, pp. 46-54.</ref> "the art of effective organization." ([[Stafford Beer]]); "the science or the art of manipulating defensible metaphors; showing how they may be constructed and what can be inferred as a result of their existence" ([[Gordon Pask]]);<ref>Pask, G. (1975). The cybernetics of human learning and performance: A guide to theory and research. Hutchinson. Page 13.</ref> "the art of creating equilibrium in a world of constraints and possibilities" ([[Ernst von Glasersfeld]]); "the science and art of understanding" ([[Humberto Maturana]]); "the ability to cure all temporary truth of eternal triteness" ([[Herbert Brun]]); "a way of thinking about ways of thinking (of which it is one)" ([[Larry Richards]]);<ref>Richards, Larry (2001). The Praxis of Thinking: Deliberate vs. Improvised. Online Proceedings of the American Society for Cybernetics 2001 Conference, Vancouver, May 2001. http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/2001/Richards.htm</ref> === Etymology === [[File:Ideal feedback model.svg|thumb|Simple feedback model. AB < 0 for [[negative feedback]].]] The word ''cybernetics'' comes from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] κυβερνητική (''kybernētikḗ''), meaning "governance", i.e., all that are pertinent to κυβερνάω (''kybernáō''), the latter meaning "to steer, navigate or govern", hence κυβέρνησις (''kybérnēsis''), meaning "government", is the government while κυβερνήτης (''kybernḗtēs'') is the governor, pilot, or "helmsperson" of the "ship". French physicist and mathematician [[André-Marie Ampère]] first coined the word "cybernetique" in his 1834 essay ''Essai sur la philosophie des sciences'' to describe the science of civil government.<ref>[[H.S. Tsien]]. ''[[Engineering Cybernetics]]'', Preface vii. McGraw Hill, 1954.</ref> The term was used by [[Norbert Wiener]], in his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine|Cybernetics]]'', to define the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. In the book, he states: "Although the term ''cybernetics'' does not date further back than the summer of 1947, we shall find it convenient to use in referring to earlier epochs of the development of the field."<ref name="W1948" /> ===Closely related fields=== ====Systems==== Cybernetics is sometimes understood within the context of the broad field of [[Systems science|Systems]].<ref> e.g. by Ray Ison: Ison, R. (2012). A cybersystemic framework for practical action. In: Murray, Joy; Cawthorne, Glenn; Dey, Christopher and Andrew, Chris eds. Enough for All Forever. A Handbook for Learning about Sustainability. Champaign, Illinois: Common Ground Publishing, pp. 269–284.</ref><ref>Checkland, P. (1981). Systems thinking, systems practice. Wiley, Chichester.</ref> Systems approaches influenced by cybernetics include: * [[Critical systems thinking]], which incorporates the [[Viable System Model]] from the work of [[Stafford Beer]]. * [[Systemic design]], which has drawn on the work of cyberneticians [[Ranulph Glanville]], [[Klaus Krippendorff]], and [[Paul Pangaro]].<ref>Jones, P. H., & Kijima, K. (Eds.). (2018). Systemic design: Theory, methods, and practice. Springer, p. ix. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55639-8</ref> * [[System dynamics]], which is based on the concept of causal feedback loops. ====Other intersecting fields==== Cybernetics' broad scope and tendency to transgress disciplinary norms<ref>Pickering, A. (2010). The cybernetic brain: Sketches of another future. University of Chicago Press. Page 9</ref> means its own boundaries have shifted over time and can be difficult to define. Many fields trace their origins in whole or part to work carried out in cybernetics, or were partially absorbed into cybernetics when it was developed. These include: * [[Artificial intelligence]] * [[Bionics]] * [[Cognitive science]] * [[Control theory]] * [[Complexity science]] * [[Computer science]] * [[Information theory]] * [[Robotics]] ===Key concepts=== Key concepts in cybernetics include: ====Black Box==== {{Main|Black box}} ====Distinction==== {{See also|Laws of Form}} [[G. Spencer-Brown|George Spencer Brown's]] Laws of Form became influential in cybernetics, including in the work of [[Francisco Varela]], and [[Louis Kauffman]]. ====Eigenform==== {{Main|Eigenform}} The notion of eigenform is an example of a self-referential system that produces a stable form. It plays an important role in the work of Heinz von Foerster<ref>Foerster, Heinz von. (2003). Objects: Tokens for (eigen-)behaviors. In Understanding understanding: Essays on cybernetics and cognition (pp. 261-272). Springer-Verlag.</ref> and is "inextricably linked with second order cybernetics".<ref>Kauffman, L. H. (2003). Eigenforms: Objects as tokens for eigenbehaviors. Cybernetics and Human Knowing, 10(3/4), 73-90.</ref> ====Feedback and circular causality==== {{Main|Feedback}} Feedback is a process where the outputs of a system are taken as new inputs for the same system. ====Homeostasis==== {{Main|Homeostasis}} ====Law of requisite variety==== {{Main|Variety (cybernetics)}} ====Self-organisation==== {{Main|Self-organisation in cybernetics}} == History == === Precursors === [[File:ARAGO Francois Astronomie Populaire T1 page 0067 Fig16-17.jpg|thumb|upright|Ctesibius' water clock, as visualized by the 17th-century French architect Claude Perrault]] The word ''cybernetics'' was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by [[Plato]] in Republic<ref>Book VI, The philosophy of government</ref> and in [[First Alcibiades|''Alcibiades'']] to signify the [[governance]] of people.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite web |url = http://www.jurlandia.org/cybsoc.htm |last = Johnson |first = Barnabas |title = The Cybernetics of Society |access-date = 8 January 2012 }}</ref> The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge. The first artificial automatic regulatory system was a [[water clock]], invented by the mechanician [[Ktesibios]]; based on a tank which poured water into a reservoir before using it to run the mechanism, it used a cone-shaped float to monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Devices constructed by [[Ktesibios]] and others such as [[Hero of Alexandria]], [[Philo of Byzantium]] and [[Su Song]] are early examples of cybernetic principles in action. [[File:James Watt.jpg|thumb|upright|James Watt]] In the late 18th century [[James Watt (inventor)|James Watt]]'s steam engine was equipped with a [[governor (device)|governor]] (1775–1800), a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. In 1868 [[James Clerk Maxwell]] published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. [[Jakob von Uexküll]] applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (''Funktionskreis'') in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. Other precursors include: [[Kenneth Craik]] and [[Ștefan Odobleja]]. ===Foundations=== {{See also|Macy conferences|Ratio Club}} [[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|Norbert Wiener]] The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]] –based on the research on living organisms that [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] did in Mexico–; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]]. In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]]. The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept. The foundations of cybernetics were developed through a series of transdisciplinary conferences funded by the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, between 1946 and 1953. The conferences were chaired by [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]] and had participants included [[W. Ross Ashby|Ross Ashby]], [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Heinz von Foerster]], [[Margaret Mead]], [[John von Neumann]], and [[Norbert Wiener]]. In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]] and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]''.<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]]. In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin). Published in 1954, [[Qian Xuesen]] published work "Engineering Cybernetics" was the basis of science in segregating the engineering concepts of Cybernetics from the theoretical understanding of Cybernetics as described so far historically. The Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958. ===Cybernetics in the soviet union=== {{Main|Cybernetics in the Soviet Union}} [[Cybernetics in the Soviet Union]] was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics.<ref>''Философский словарь'' (Philosophical dictionary), 1954; "Cybernetics", ''The Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' (1979)</ref> In the mid to late 1950s [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. Soviet cybernetics incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glushkov |first=Viktor |date=1966 |title=Introduction to Cybernetics |location=New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0122868504}}</ref> The design of self-regulating control systems for a real-time planned [[Economic cybernetics|economy]] was explored by economist [[Oskar Lange]], cyberneticist [[Viktor Glushkov]], and other [[Soviet cyberneticists]] during the 1960s. ===Split from artificial intelligence=== [[Artificial intelligence]] (AI) was founded as a distinct discipline at the [[Dartmouth workshop]] in 1956. After some uneasy coexistence, AI gained funding and prominence. Consequently, cybernetic sciences such as the study of [[artificial neural network]]s were downplayed; the discipline shifted into the world of social sciences and therapy.<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal|last=Cariani|first=Peter|date=15 March 2010|title=On the importance of being emergent|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani|journal=Constructivist Foundations|volume=5|issue=2|page=89|access-date=13 August 2012|quote=artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref> === Further development and new directions === {{See also|Second-order cybernetics|}} In the 1970s, [[new cybernetics|new cyberneticians]] emerged in multiple fields, but especially in [[biology]]. The ideas of [[Humberto Maturana|Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela|Varela]] and [[Henri Atlan|Atlan]], according to Jean-Pierre Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature - organizations he has not himself invented".<ref name="JPD86">Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil & [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] eds., ''Evolution, Order and Complexity'', 1986.</ref> However, during the 1980s the question of whether the features of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.<ref name="JPD86" /> In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself with the interaction of autonomous political [[actor]]s and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and with the ways in which systems build upon themselves".<ref name="PHJ 88">Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in: ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'', Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.</ref> One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Hans van der Zouwen]], according to Bailey (1994),<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref> was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with the environment. This provides an [[epistemology|epistemological]] foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent. Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the ''micro-macro gap''. That is, it links the individual with the society".<ref name="KB 94" /> Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics to the new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking involve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and the factor which guides the steering decisions; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systems which are trying to steer each other".<ref name="KB 94" /> Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as [[game theory]] (the analysis of group interaction), [[evolutionarily stable strategy|systems of feedback in evolution]], and [[metamaterials]] (the study of materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest in the field.<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |last = Kelly |first = Kevin |title = Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world |publisher = Addison-Wesley |location = Boston |year = 1994 |isbn = 978-0-201-48340-6 |oclc = 221860672 |url = https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell }}</ref> == Notable subfields and theories== Notable subfields and theories of cybernetics include: ===Autopoiesis=== {{Main|Autopoiesis}} {{See also|Santiago theory of cognition}} ===Double bind theory=== {{Main|Double bind}} Double bind theory was first described by [[Gregory Bateson]] and colleagues in the 1950s,<ref name="schizophrenia">Bateson, G., Jackson, D. D., Haley, J. & Weakland, J., 1956, Toward a theory of schizophrenia.''Behavioral Science'', Vol. 1, 251–264.</ref> in a theory on the origins of [[schizophrenia]]. ===Conversation theory=== {{Main|Conversation theory}} ===Enactivism=== {{Main|Enactivism}} Cybernetics is associated with the enactive approach to [[cognitive science]] through the work of [[Francisco Varela]]. ===Good regulator theorem=== {{Main|Good regulator}} ===Perceptual control theory=== {{Main|Perceptual control theory}} ===Radical constructivism=== {{Main|Radical constructivism}} Radical constructivism is an approach to epistemology developed initially by [[Ernst von Glasersfeld]]. It is closely associated with second-order cybernetics.<ref>Glanville, R. (2013). Radical constructivism = second order cybernetics. Cybernetics and Human Knowing, 19(4), 27-42.</ref> === Second-order cybernetics === {{Main|Second-order cybernetics}} Second-order cybernetics, also known as the cybernetics of cybernetics, is the recursive application of cybernetics to itself and the practice of cybernetics according to such a critique. It has seen development of cybernetics in relation to family therapy, the social sciences, the creative arts, design research, and philosophy. It is associated with [[Margaret Mead]], [[Heinz von Foerster]], the [[Biological Computer Laboratory]] and the [[American Society for Cybernetics]]. ===Viable system model=== {{Main|Viable system model}} {{See also|Management cybernetics}} ==Notable devices and projects== A distinctive quality of cybernetics, especially as developed by British cyberneticians, is that it was often progressed through experimental devices and social projects.<ref>Pickering, A. (2010). The cybernetic brain: Sketches of another future. University of Chicago Press.</ref> Notable examples include: ===Colloquy of Mobiles=== Colloquy of Mobiles was an installation by Gordon Pask at the [[Cybernetic Serendipity]] exhibition in 1968. ===Elmer and Elsie=== {{Main|Elmer and Elsie (robots)}} Elmer and Elsie were a pair of robot "tortoises" developed by [[William Grey Walter]]. ===Fun Palace=== The Fun Palace was a radical [[Architecture|architectural]] project developed in the 1960s by the architect [[Cedric Price]], theatre director [[Joan Littlewood]], and cybernetician [[Gordon Pask]].<ref>Mathews, S. (2007). From Agit-Prop to Free Space: The Architecture of Cedric Price. Black Dog. </ref> Although unbuilt, the project was widely influential, notably on the design of the [[Centre Pompidou]]. ===Homeostat=== {{Main|Homeostat}} The Homeostat was a device built by Ross Ashby that was capable of adapting itself to the environment, exhibited behaviours such as habituation, reinforcement and learning through its ability to maintain homeostasis in a changing environment. ===Musicolour=== Musicolour was an interactive light installation developed by [[Gordon Pask]] during the 1950s. It responded to musicians' variations and, if they did not vary their playing, it would become 'bored' and stop responding, prompting the musicians to respond. ===Project Cybersyn=== {{Main|Project Cybersyn}} [[Project Cybersyn]] attempted to apply cybernetics to the economy at large scale during the early 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Loeber|first1=Katharina|date=2018-04-13|title=Big Data, Algorithmic Regulation, and the History of the Cybersyn Project in Chile, 1971–1973|journal=Social Sciences|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=65|doi=10.3390/socsci7040065|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==Practice and application== Cybernetics' transdisciplinary origins have led to a wide variety of applications, approaches and associations. ===In the natural sciences and technology=== ==== Biology==== {{Main|Autopoiesis|Biological cybernetics|Systems biology}} Many early cyberneticians worked in [[neurophysiology]], including [[William Grey Walter|Grey Walter]], [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|Warren McCulloch]], and [[Arturo Rosenblueth]]. This remained a focus as cybernetics developed.<ref>Wiener, N., & Schadé, J. P. (1963). Introduction to Neurocybernetics. In N. Wiener & J. P. Schadé (Eds.), Progress in Brain Research (Vol. 2, pp. 1-7). Elsevier. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(08)62055-5</ref> Other applications of cybernetics in biology include the physicist [[George Gamow]]'s article in ''[[Scientific American]]'' called "Information transfer in the living cell", and biologists [[Jacques Monod]] and [[François Jacob]] use of cybernetics as a language for formulating their early theory of [[gene regulatory network]]s in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://nautil.us/issue/35/boundaries/why-physics-is-not-a-discipline.|title=Why Physics Is Not a Discipline - Issue 35: Boundaries - Nautilus |website=Nautilus |access-date=2016-04-24}}</ref> ==== Engineering and computing==== {{Main|Engineering cybernetics|Control system|Control theory|Robotics|Systems engineering|Computational cybernetics}} ==== Medicine and medical technology ==== {{Main|Medical cybernetics}} Cybernetics has been used as a general reference for the science between the interjection of disciplines Medicine and technology. This involves sciences such as [[Bionics]], [[Prosthesis|Prosthetics]], [[Neural network]], [[Microchip implant (human)|Microchip implants]], [[Neuroprosthetics]] and [[Brain–computer interface|Brain-computer interface.]] ====Other ==== * In Earth system science. Geocybernetics aims to study and control the complex co-evolution of [[Earth's spheres|ecosphere]] and [[anthroposphere]],<ref name="Schellnhuber (1998)">Schellnhuber, H.-J., Discourse: Earth system analysis - The scope of the challenge, pp. 3-195. In: Schellnhuber, H.-J. and Wenzel, V. (Eds.). 1998. Earth system analysis: Integrating science for sustainability. Berlin: Springer.</ref> for example, for dealing with planetary problems such as anthropogenic [[global warming]].<ref name="Schellnhuber (1999)">Schellnhuber, H.-J., Earth system analysis and the second Copernican revolution. ''Nature'', 402, C19-C23. 1999.</ref> Geocybernetics applies a [[dynamical systems]] perspective to [[Earth system analysis]]. It provides a theoretical framework for studying the implications of following different [[sustainability]] paradigms on co-evolutionary trajectories of the planetary [[socio-ecological system]] to reveal [[attractor]]s in this system, their stability, resilience and reachability. Concepts such as [[wikt:tipping point|tipping point]]s in the [[climate system]], [[planetary boundaries]], the [[safe operating space]] for humanity and proposals for manipulating Earth system dynamics on a global scale such as [[climate engineering|geoengineering]] have been framed in the language of geocybernetic Earth system analysis. * In physics. [[Cybernetical physics]] is an approach to studying physical systems using cybernetics.<ref>Fradkov A.L. (2007). Cybernetical physics: from control of chaos to quantum control. Springer-Verlag.</ref> ===In the social and behavioural sciences=== ====Anthropology==== Anthropologists working in cybernetics include [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Margaret Mead]], [[Mary Catherine Bateson]], and [[Genevieve Bell]]. ==== Psychology and cognitive science==== {{Main|Cognitive psychology|Systems psychology}} Concepts from cybernetics spread throughout psychology from the 1950s onwards.<ref>Scott B. (2016) Cybernetic foundations for psychology. Constructivist Foundations 11(3): 509–517. http://constructivist.info/11/3/509</ref><ref>Tilak, S., Glassman, M., Kuznetcova, I., & Pelfrey, G. L. (2021). Applications of cybernetics to psychological theory: Historical and conceptual explorations. Theory & Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/09593543211053804 </ref> ==== Sociology==== {{Main|Sociocybernetics|Social systems}} By examining group behavior through the lens of cybernetics, sociologists can seek the reasons for such spontaneous events as [[smart mob]]s and [[riots]], as well as how communities develop rules such as etiquette by consensus without formal discussion.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} [[Affect Control Theory]] explains [[role]] behavior, [[emotion]]s, and [[labeling theory]] in terms of homeostatic maintenance of sentiments associated with cultural categories. The most comprehensive attempt ever made in the social sciences to increase cybernetics in a generalized theory of society was made by [[Talcott Parsons]]. In this way, cybernetics establishes the basic hierarchy in Parsons' [[AGIL paradigm]], which is the ordering system-dimension of his [[action theory (sociology)|action theory]]. These and other cybernetic models in sociology are reviewed in a book edited by McClelland and Fararo.<ref name="McClelland">McClelland, Kent A., and Thomas J. Fararo (Eds.). 2006. Purpose, Meaning, and Action: Control Systems Theories in Sociology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> ===In creative, practical, and therapeutic disciplines=== ====Architecture and design==== {{See also|Systemic design|Metadesign}} Cybernetics was an influence on thinking in architecture and design in the decades after the Second World War. Ashby and Pask were drawn on by design theorists such as [[Horst Rittel]],<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Thomas|last1=Fischer|first2=Laurence D.|last2=Richards|title=From Goal-Oriented to Constraint-Oriented Design: The Cybernetic Intersection of Design Theory and Systems Theory|journal=Leonardo|date=2014-06-09|issn=0024-094X|pages=36–41|volume=50|issue=1|doi=10.1162/leon_a_00862|s2cid=57565090|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1001054}}</ref> [[Christopher Alexander]]<ref>Upitis, A. (2013). Alexander's Choice: How Architecture avoided Computer Aided Design c. 1962. In A. Dutta (Ed.), A Second Modernism: MIT, Architecture, and the 'Techno-Social' Moment (pp. 474-505). Cambridge, Massachusetts: SA+P Press.</ref> and [[Bruce Archer]].<ref>Boyd Davis, S., & Gristwood, S. (2016). The Structure of Design Processes: Ideal and Reality in Bruce Archer’s 1968 Doctoral Thesis. In Proceedings of DRS 2016, Design Research Society 50th Anniversary Conference, Brighton, UK. 27–30 June 2016. Retrieved from http://www.drs2016.org/240/</ref> Pask was a consultant to [[Nicholas Negroponte]]'s [[Architecture Machine Group]], forerunner of the [[MIT Media Lab]], and collaborated with architect [[Cedric Price]] and theatre director [[Joan Littlewood]] on the influential [[Fun Palace]] project during the 1960s.<ref>Mathews, S. (2007). From Agit-Prop to Free Space: The Architecture of Cedric Price. London: Black Dog. Isabelle Doucet (University of Manchester, UK), Samantha Hardingham (Architectural Association, London, UK), Tanja Herdt (TU Munich, Germany), Jim Njoo (École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Paris-La Villette, France), Ben Sweeting (University of Brighton, UK). [https://www.cca.qc.ca/en/events/40500/an-afternoon-with-cedric-price-no-1 An Afternoon with Cedric Price no. 1, CCA c/o Lisboa]. Panel discussion moderated by Kim Förster, CCA Associate Director, Research. Organised by the Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal and Artéria, Lisbon. Held at Barbas Lopes Arquitectos. Part of the Lisbon Architecture Triennale 2016. 22 October 2016.</ref> Pask's 1950s Musicolour installation was the inspiration for John and Julia Frazer's work on Price's Generator project.<ref>Furtado Cardoso Lopes, G. M. (2008). Cedric Price's Generator and the Frazers' systems research. Technoetic Arts, 6(1), 55-72. {{doi|10.1386/tear.6.1.55_1}}</ref> The cybernetic study of design has contributed to design methods research<ref>Fischer, T., & Herr, C. M. (Eds.). (2019). Design Cybernetics: Navigating the new. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18557-2; Glanville, R. (1999). Researching design and designing research. Design Issues, 15(2), 80-91. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511844 </ref> and to the development of [[systemic design]] practices. ====Creative arts==== {{Main|Cybernetic art}} {{See also|telematic art|interactive art|systems art}} [[Nicolas Schöffer]]'s ''CYSP I'' (1956) was perhaps the first artwork to explicitly employ cybernetic principles (CYSP is an acronym that joins the first two letters of the words "CYbernetic" and "SPatiodynamic").<ref>{{cite web|title=CYSP I, the first cybernetic sculpture of art's history|url=http://www.olats.org/schoffer/cyspe.htm|publisher=Leonardo/OLATS - Observatoire Leonardo des arts et des technosciences}}</ref> The prominent and influential [[Cybernetic Serendipity]] exhibition was held at the [[Institute of Contemporary Arts]] in 1968 curated by [[Jasia Reichardt]], including Schöffer's ''CYSP I'' and Gordon Pask's ''Colloquy of Mobiles'' installation. Pask's reflections on ''Colloquy'' connected it to his earlier ''Musicolour'' installation and to what he termed "aesthetically potent environments", a concept that connected this artistic work to his concerns with teaching and learning.<ref>Pask, G. (1971). A comment, a case history and a plan. In J. Reichardt (Ed.), Cybernetics, art and ideas (pp. 76-99). London: Studio Vista. Fernandez, M. (2009). “Aesthetically-Potent Environments” or How Pask Detourned Instrumental Cybernetics. In P. Brown, C. Gere, N. Lambert & C. Mason (Eds.), White Heat Cold Logic: British Computer Art 1960-1980 Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.</ref> The artist [[Roy Ascott]] elaborated an extensive theory of cybernetic art in "Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision" (''Cybernetica'', Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics (Namur), Volume IX, No.4, 1966; Volume X No.1, 1967) and in "The Cybernetic Stance: My Process and Purpose" (''Leonardo'' Vol 1, No 2, 1968). Art historian [[Edward A. Shanken]] has written about the history of art and cybernetics in essays including "Cybernetics and Art: Cultural Convergence in the 1960s"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.artexetra.com//CyberneticsArtCultConv.pdf |title=Cybernetics and Art: Cultural Convergence in the 1960s |access-date=2012-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229131650/http://www.artexetra.com//CyberneticsArtCultConv.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=From Energy to Information: Representation in Science, Technology, Art, and Literature |year=2002 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |pages=255–277 |editor=Bruce Clarke |editor2=Linda Dalrymple Henderson |editor2-link=Linda Dalrymple Henderson }}</ref> and ''From Cybernetics to Telematics: The Art, Pedagogy, and Theory of Roy Ascott'' (2003),<ref>{{cite book|last=Ascott|first=Roy|title=Telematic Embrace: Visionary Theories of Art, Technology, and Consciousness|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|editor=Edward A. Shanken}}</ref> which traces the trajectory of Ascott's work from cybernetic art to [[telematic art]] (art using computer networking as its medium, a precursor to [[net.art]]). Others in the creative arts who are associated with cybernetics, include [[Vanilla Beer]], [[Herbert Brün|Herbert Brun]], [[Brian Eno]], [[Pauline Oliveros]], [[Tom Scholte]], and [[Stephen Willats]]. ====Education==== {{See also|Radical constructivism}} Cybernetics has been influential in the development of educational technology, notably in the work of Gordon Pask, and in theories of teaching and learning, including Pask's [[Conversation theory|Conversation Theory]], Ernst von Glasersfeld's [[Radical constructivism|Radical Constructivism]], and [[Gregory Bateson|Gregory Bateson's]] conception of [[Deuterolearning|deuterolearning]]. ==== Management and organisation==== {{Main|Management cybernetics}} Management as a field of study covers the task of managing a multitude of systems (often [[business systems]]), which presents a wide natural overlap with many of the classical concepts of cybernetics. Management cybernetics includes approaches such as Stafford Beer's [[Viable system model|Viable System Model]] and [[Syntegrity|Syntegration]]. ==== Psychotherapy==== {{Main|Family therapy|Systemic therapy (psychotherapy)|Method of levels}} The development of [[family therapy]] was significantly influenced by cybernetics through the work of Gregory Bateson, as was the work of [[R. D. Laing]]. The method of levels is an approach to [[psychotherapy]] based on [[perceptual control theory]] where the therapist aims to help the patient shift their awareness to higher levels of perception in order to resolve conflicts and allow reorganization to take place. ===Other applications=== * A model of cybernetics in Sport was introduced by Yuri Verkhoshansky and Mel C. Siff in 1999 in their book ''Supertraining''. * [[Psycho-Cybernetics]] is a [[self-help book]] written by [[Maxwell Maltz]] in 1960.<ref name="Maltz">{{cite book|last=Maltz|first=Maxwell|title=Psycho-Cybernetics|isbn=978-0671700751|year=1960|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]}}</ref> ==Philosophical concerns== ===Ecological aesthetics=== {{Main|Gregory_Bateson#Ecological_anthropology_and_cybernetics}} [[Gregory Bateson]] saw the world as a series of systems containing those of individuals, societies and ecosystems. Each of these systems has adaptive changes which depend upon [[feedback loops]] to control balance by changing multiple variables. He saw the natural ecological system as innately good as long as it was allowed to maintain homeostasis, and that the key unit of survival in evolution was an organism and its environment.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=1904-1980|first=Bateson, Gregory|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1048594515|title=Steps to an ecology of mind|date=15 April 2000|isbn=0-226-03905-6|oclc=1048594515}}</ref> Bateson, in this subject, presents western [[epistemology]] as a method of thinking that leads to a mindset in which man exerts an [[autocratic]] rule over all cybernetic systems and in doing so he unbalances the natural cybernetic system of controlled competition and mutual dependency. Bateson claims that humanity will never be able to control the whole system because it does not operate in a [[linear]] fashion, and if humanity creates his own rules for the system, he opens himself up to becoming a slave to the self-made system due to the non-linear nature of cybernetics. Lastly, man's technological prowess combined with his scientific hubris gives him the potential to irrevocably damage and destroy the "supreme cybernetic system" (i.e. the [[biosphere]]), instead of just disrupting the system temporally until the system can self-correct.<ref name=":2" /> ===Epistemology and the philosophy of science=== {{Main|Radical constructivism}} Second-order cybernetics is associated with a radically constructivist approach to epistemology and the philosophy of science. ===Ethics=== The critique of objectivity developed in second-order cybernetics led to a concern with ethical issues. Foerster developed a critique of morality in ethical terms, arguing for ethics to remain implicit in action.<ref name = "HVF Ethics">Foerster, Heinz von. (1992). Ethics and second-order cybernetics. Cybernetics and Human Knowing, 1(1), 9-19.</ref> Foerster's position has been described as an "ethics of enabling ethics"<ref>Poerksen, B. (2011). Ethics of enabling ethics. Cybernetics & Human Knowing, 18(3-4), 143-149. </ref> or as a form of "recursive ethical questioning".<ref>Sweeting, B. (2019). Applying ethics to itself: recursive ethical questioning in architecture and second-order cybernetics. Kybernetes, 48(4), 805-815. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-12-2017-0471 </ref> Varela published a short book on "ethical know-how".<ref>Varela, F. J. (1999). Ethical know-how: Action, wisdom, and cognition. Stanford University Press.</ref> Glanville identified a number of "desirable" ethical qualities implicit in the cybernetic devices of the black box, distinction, autonomy, and [[Conversation theory|conversation]].<ref>Glanville, R. (2004). Desirable Ethics. Cybernetics and Human Knowing, 11(2), 77-88.</ref> Others have drawn connections to design<ref>Westermann, C. (2020), "The art of conversation: design cybernetics and its ethics", Kybernetes, Vol. 49 No. 8, pp. 2171-2183. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-03-2019-0186</ref><ref>Sweeting, B. (2018). Wicked problems in design and ethics. In P. H. Jones & K. Kijima (Eds.), Systemic design: Theory, methods, and practice (pp. 119-143). Springer Japan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55639-8</ref> and [[critical systems heuristics]].<ref>Scholte, T. (2019). Heuristics for the Undecidable. She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation, 5(4), 379-382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sheji.2019.11.011 </ref> ===Logic=== Logicians working in cybernetics include [[Gotthard Günther]] and [[Lars Löfgren]]. ==Wider influence== ===Counter culture=== Cybernetics was influential on the development of countercultural movements through figures such as [[Stewart Brand]] and publications such as the [[Whole Earth Catalogue]] and [[Co-Evolution Quarterly]].<ref>Dubberly, H., & Pangaro, P. (2015). How cybernetics connects computing, counterculture, and design. In Hippie Modernism: The Struggle for Utopia. Walker Art Center. http://www.dubberly.com/articles/cybernetics-and-counterculture.html </ref> ===Deleuze and Guattari=== [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]] were influenced by the work of Gregory Bateson.<ref>Shaw, Robert (2015) 'Bringing Deleuze and Guattari down to Earth through Gregory Bateson : plateaus, rhizomes and ecosophical subjectivity.', Theory, culture society., 32 (7-8). pp. 151-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0263276414524451</ref> ===Feminisms=== {{Main|Cyberfeminism|Cyborg anthropology}} Ideas from cybernetics have influenced [[Feminism|feminisms]] through the work of [[Margaret Mead]], [[Mary Catherine Bateson]], [[Donna Haraway]], and [[Sadie Plant]]. ===Hayek=== [[Friedrich Hayek]] refers to cybernetics as a discipline that could help economists understand the "self-organizing or self-generating systems" called [[Market (economics)|markets]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Law, Legislation and Liberty: Volume 1: Rules and Order|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|location=London|pages=37}}</ref> ===Posthumanism=== {{Main|Posthumanism}} Cybernetics' relevance across and between the domains of [[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine|"the animal and machine"]] have been an influence on the development of posthumanism, such as in the work of [[N. Katherine Hayles]]. ==Journals== * [[Constructivist Foundations]] * [[Cybernetics and Human Knowing]] * [[Cybernetics and Systems]] * IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Systems * IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems * IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics * IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems * [[Kybernetes]] ==Organisations== {{See also|List of systems sciences organizations}} Organisations primarily concerned with cybernetics or aspects of it include: ===American Society for Cybernetics=== {{Main|American Society for Cybernetics}} === Cybernetics Society=== {{Main|Cybernetics Society}} ===IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society=== {{Main|IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society}} ===Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics=== {{Main|Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics}} === Metaphorum === The Metaphorum group was set up in 2003 to develop Stafford Beer's legacy in Organizational Cybernetics. The Metaphorum Group was born in a [[Syntegrity|Syntegration]] in 2003 and have every year after developed a Conference on issues related to Organizational Cybernetics' theory and practice. === RC51 Sociocybernetics === RC51 is a research committee of the [[International Sociological Association]] promoting the development of (socio)cybernetic theory and research within the social sciences.<ref>https://www.isa-sociology.org/en/research-networks/research-committees/rc51-sociocybernetics/</ref> === SCiO - Systems and Complexity in Organisation === SCiO (Systems and Complexity in Organisation) is a community of systems practitioners who believe that traditional approaches to running organisations are no longer capable of dealing with the complexity and turbulence faced by organisations today and are responsible for many of the problems we see today. SCiO is the Body of Knowledge in Systems Practice in the UK, delivers a apprenticeship on masters level and a certification in systems practice. <ref>https://www.systemspractice.org/</ref> == See also == {{Col-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Autonomous agency theory]] * [[Complex systems]] * [[Gaia hypothesis]] * [[Industrial ecology]] * [[Principia Cybernetica]] * [[Superorganism]]s * [[Synergetics (Haken)]] * [[Tektology]] * [[Viable system theory]] }} == External links == <!-- This section should only contain links to most notable websites about cybernetics in general. Website about specific fields of cybernetics should be listed in the related specific Wikipedia article. --> {{Sister project links |wikt = cybernetics |commons= Category:Cybernetics |b = Systems Theory/Cybernetics }} ; General * [http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Comp/CompJurc.htm Norbert Wiener and Stefan Odobleja - A Comparative Analysis] * [http://bactra.org/notebooks/cybernetics.html Reading List for Cybernetics ] * [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/DEFAULT.html ''Principia Cybernetica Web''] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091213161047/http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/asc/indexasc.html Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems] * [http://www.gwu.edu/~asc/slide/s1.html Glossary Slideshow (136 slides)] * {{cite web |title=Basics of Cybernetics |url=http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/cybernetics.html |access-date=2016-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811013353/http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/cybernetics.html |archive-date=2010-08-11 }} * {{YouTube|_hjAXkNbPfk|What is Cybernetics? Livas short introductory videos}} ; Societies * [http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/ American Society for Cybernetics] * [http://www.ieeesmc.org/ IEEE Systems, Man, & Cybernetics Society] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150226115753/http://3rd-street.net/Group/index.php/index.php?topic=68.msg216#msg216 International Society for Cybernetics and Systems Research] * [http://www.cybsoc.org The Cybernetics Society] == Further reading == <!--If anyone knows what these references cite, please add them using the <ref></ref> tag to the appropriate information.--> * {{cite book|last=Arbib|first=Michael A.|title=Brains, machines, and mathematics|year=1987|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=New York|isbn=978-0387965390|edition=2nd}} * {{cite book|last=Arbib|first=Michael A.|title=The Metaphorical Brain|year=1972|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-03249-6|url=https://archive.org/details/metaphoricalbrai00mich}} * [[Roy Ascott|Ascott, Roy]] (1967). Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision. ''Cybernetica'', Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics (Namur), 10, pp. 25–56 * {{cite book|last=Ashby|first=William Ross|title=An introduction to cybernetics|url=http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/books/IntroCyb.pdf|access-date=3 June 2012|year=1956|publisher=Chapman & Hall}} * {{cite book|last=Beer|first=Stafford|author-link=Stafford Beer|title=Designing freedom|url=https://archive.org/details/designingfreedom00beer|url-access=registration|year=1974|publisher=Wiley|location=Chichester, West Sussex, England|isbn=978-0471951650}} * [[Charles François (systems scientist)|François, Charles]] (1999). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060616081808/http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/~gossimit/ifsr/francois/papers/systemics_and_cybernetics_in_a_historical_perspective.pdf Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective]". In: ''Systems Research and Behavioral Science''. Vol 16, pp. 203–219 (1999) * {{cite book|last=George|first=F. H.|title=Cybernetics|year=1971|publisher=Teach Yourself Books|isbn=978-0-340-05941-8|url=https://archive.org/details/cybernetics0000geor}} * {{cite book|last=Gerovitch|first=Slava|title=From newspeak to cyberspeak : a history of Soviet cybernetics|year=2002|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts [u.a.]|isbn=978-0262-07232-8|url=http://web.mit.edu/slava/homepage/newspeak.htm}} * {{cite book|last=Heims|first=Steve Joshua|title=Constructing a social science for postwar America : the cybernetics group, 1946-1953|year=1993|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts u.a.|isbn=9780262581233|edition=1st}} * {{cite book|last=Helvey|first=T.C.|title=The age of information; an interdisciplinary survey of cybernetics|year=1971|publisher=Educational Technology Publications|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.|isbn=9780877780083}} * [[Francis Heylighen|Heylighen, Francis]], and [[Cliff Joslyn]] (2002). "[http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Papers/Cybernetics-EPST.pdf Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics]", in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology'' (3rd ed.), Vol. 4, (Academic Press, San Diego), p. 155-169. * Hyötyniemi, Heikki (2006). [http://neocybernetics.com/report151/ ''Neocybernetics in Biological Systems'']. Espoo: Helsinki University of Technology, Control Engineering Laboratory. * Ilgauds, Hans Joachim (1980), ''Norbert Wiener'', Leipzig. * {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=John|title=The allure of machinic life : cybernetics, artificial life, and the new AI|year=2008|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0-262-10126-4}} * {{cite book|last=Medina|first=Eden|title=Cybernetic revolutionaries : technology and politics in Allende's Chile|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2011|isbn=978-0-262-01649-0}} * {{cite web|last=Pangaro|first=Paul|title=Cybernetics — A Definition|url=http://pangaro.com/published/cyber-macmillan.html}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Pask |first=Gordon |author-link=Gordon Pask |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Cybernetics |url=http://www.cybsoc.org/gcyb.htm |year=1972 |access-date=2007-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928071309/http://www.cybsoc.org/gcyb.htm |archive-date=2011-09-28 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal|last=Patten|first=Bernard C.|author2=Odum, Eugene P.|title=The Cybernetic Nature of Ecosystems|journal=The American Naturalist|date=December 1981|volume=118|issue=6|pages=886–895|jstor=2460822?|doi=10.1086/283881|s2cid=84672792}} * {{cite book|last=Pekelis|first=V.|title=Cybernetics A to Z|year=1974|publisher=Mir Publishers|location=Moscow}} * {{cite book|last=Pickering|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Pickering|title=The cybernetic brain : sketches of another future|year=2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226667898|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}} * [[Stuart Umpleby|Umpleby, Stuart]] (1989). [ftp://ftp.vub.ac.be/pub/projects/Principia_Cybernetica/Papers_Umpleby/Science-Cybernetics.txt "The science of cybernetics and the cybernetics of science"]{{Dead link|date=August 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, in: ''Cybernetics and Systems", Vol. 21, No. 1, (1990), pp. 109–121. * [[Heinz von Foerster|von Foerster, Heinz]], (1995), [http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/4-2/text/foerster.html Ethics and Second-Order Cybernetics]. * {{cite book|last=Wiener|first=Norbert|author-link=Norbert Wiener|title=Cybernetics; or, Control and communication in the animal and the machine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AKaAAAAIAAJ|access-date=3 June 2012|year=1948|publisher=Technology Press|location=Paris|editor=Hermann & Cie}} * {{cite book|last=Wiener|first=Norbert|author-link=Norbert Wiener|title=Cybernetics and Society: The Human Use of Human Beings|year=1950|publisher=Houghton Mifflin}} ==Notes== {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} == References == {{Reflist}} {{-}} {{Cybernetics}} {{Systems}} {{Portal bar|Agronomy|Biology|Business and economics|Ecology|Science|Systems science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Cybernetics| ]]
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