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== Criticism == {{See also|Affirmative action in the United States#Arguments against affirmative action|Resistance to diversity efforts in organizations}} Critics of affirmative action offer a variety of arguments as to why it is counterproductive or should be discontinued. For example, critics may argue that affirmative action hinders reconciliation, replaces old wrongs with new wrongs, undermines the achievements of minorities, and encourages individuals to identify themselves as disadvantaged, even if they are not. It may increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within [[minority group]]s at the expense of the least fortunate within majority groups.<ref name="Cultural Whiplash 2006">''Cultural Whiplash: Unforeseen Consequences of America's Crusade Against Racial Discrimination'' / Patrick Garry (2006) {{ISBN|1-58182-569-2}}</ref> Some opponents of affirmative action argue that it is a form of [[reverse discrimination]], that any effort to cure discrimination through affirmative action is wrong because it, in turn, is another form of discrimination.<ref name=":2">{{cite magazine |last1=Fish |first1=Stanley |title=Reverse Racism, or How the Pot Got to Call the Kettle Black |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/politics/race/fish.htm |access-date=2 March 2019 |magazine=The Atlantic |date=November 1993 |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828041855/https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/politics/race/fish.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some critics claim that court cases such as ''[[Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)|Fisher v. University of Texas]]'', which held that colleges have some discretion to consider race when making admissions decisions, demonstrate how discrimination occurs in the name of affirmative action.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Newkirk |first1=Vann R. |title=The Myth of Reverse Racism: The idea of white victimhood is increasingly central to the debate over affirmative action |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/08/myth-of-reverse-racism/535689/ |access-date=2 March 2019 |magazine=The Atlantic |date=5 August 2017}}</ref> Some critics of affirmative action argue that affirmative action devalues the actual accomplishments of people who are chosen based on the social group to which they belong rather than their qualifications, thus rendering affirmative action counterproductive.<ref name="Sher, George 1983, p.40">Sher, George, "Preferential Hiring", in Tom Regan (ed.), Just Business: New Introductory Essays in Business Ethics, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1983, p. 40.</ref><ref name=sowell>{{cite book |last1=Sowell |first1=Thomas |title=Affirmative Action Around the World |date=2004 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300107753|title-link=Affirmative Action Around the World }}</ref> Some argue that affirmative action policies create an opportunity for fraud, by encouraging non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups (that is, members of groups that benefit from affirmative action) in order to take advantage of group preference policies.<ref name=sowell/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Tseming |title=Choice and Fraud in Racial Identification: The Dilemma of Policing Race in Affirmative Action, the Census, and a Color-Blind Society |journal=Michigan Journal of Race and Law |date=2006 |volume=11 |pages=367 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1718&context=facpubs |access-date=2 March 2019}}</ref> Critics of affirmative action suggest that programs may benefit the members of the targeted group that least need the benefit, that is those who have the greatest social, economic and educational advantages within the targeted group.<ref name=sowell/> Other beneficiaries may be described as wholly unqualified for the opportunity made available through affirmative action.<ref name=murray>{{cite web |title=Charles Murray |url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/charles-murray |website=Southern Poverty Law Center |access-date=2 March 2019}}</ref> They may argue that at the same time the people who lose the most to affirmative action are the least fortunate members of non-preferred groups.<ref name=sowell/> Another criticism of affirmative action is that it may reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best. Beneficiaries of affirmative action may conclude that it is unnecessary to work as hard, and those who do not benefit may perceive hard work as futile.<ref name=sowell/> === Mismatching === Mismatching is the term given to the supposed negative effect that affirmative action has when it places a student into a college that is too difficult for them. For example, in the absence of affirmative action, a student will be admitted to a college that matches their academic ability and has a good chance of graduating. However, according to the mismatching hypothesis, affirmative action often places a student into a college that is too difficult, and this increases the student's chance of dropping out of the college or of their desired major. Thus, affirmative action hurts its intended beneficiaries, because it increases their dropout rates.<ref name="latimes.com">[https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-sander26sep26,0,3998908.story?coll=la-opinion-center Does affirmative action hurt minorities?], ''Los Angeles Times'', 26 September 2007</ref><ref name="Quotas on trial">[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/sowell010803.asp Quotas on trial], by Thomas Sowell, 8 January 2003</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Heriot |first1=Gail L. |author-link1=Gail Heriot |title=Want to Be a Doctor? A Scientist? An Engineer? An Affirmative Action Leg Up May Hurt Your Chances |journal=Engage |date=December 2010 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=18–25 |ssrn=3112683 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3112683 }}</ref><ref name=murray/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121004223026/https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/10/the-painful-truth-about-affirmative-action/263122/ The Painful Truth About Affirmative Action], The Atlantic, October 2, 2012</ref> Mismatching has also been cited as a contributing factor in lowered pursuit and completion of STEM degrees among certain populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=Andrew J. |title=State affirmative action bans and STEM degree completions |journal=Economics of Education Review |date=1 April 2017 |volume=57 |pages=31–40 |doi=10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.01.003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Bleemer |first1=Zachary |title=Affirmative Action, Mismatch, and Economic Mobility after California's Proposition 209 |date=2020 |ssrn=3484530 }}</ref><ref name="auto"/> Evidence in support of the mismatching theory was presented by [[Gail Heriot]], a professor of law at the [[University of San Diego]] and a member of the [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]], in a 24 August 2007 article published in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. [[Richard Sander]] concluded that there were 7.9% fewer black attorneys than there would have been if there had been no affirmative action.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Heriot |first1=Gail |title=Affirmative Action Backfires |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118792252575507571 |work=Wall Street Journal |date=24 August 2007 }}</ref> The article also states that because of mismatching, blacks are more likely to drop out of law school and fail bar exams.<ref name=Sander>{{cite journal |last1=Sander |first1=Richard H. |title=A Systemic Analysis of Affirmative Action in American Law Schools |journal=Stanford Law Review |date=2004 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=367–483 |url=https://www.stanfordlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2010/01/Sander.pdf |jstor=40040209 }}</ref> Sander's paper on mismatching has been criticized by several law professors, including [[Ian Ayres]] and Richard Brooks from Yale who argue that eliminating affirmative action would actually reduce the number of black lawyers by 12.7%.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fisman |first=Ray |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2005/04/sanding_down_sander.html |title=Slate.com |publisher=Slate.com |access-date=11 April 2012|date=29 April 2005 }}</ref> A 2008 study by [[Jesse Rothstein]] and Albert H. Yoon confirmed Sander's mismatch findings, but also found that eliminating affirmative action would "lead to a 63 percent decline in black matriculants at all law schools and a 90 percent decline at elite law schools".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2008/09/03/affirm | title=Attacking the 'Mismatch' Critique of Affirmative Action | work=Inside Higher Education | date=3 September 2008 | access-date=27 January 2016 | author=Jaschik, Scott}}</ref> These high numbers predictions were doubted in a review of previous studies by Peter Arcidiacono and Michael Lovenheim. Their 2016 article found a strong indication that affirmative action results in a mismatch effect. They argued that the attendance by some African-American students to less-selective schools would significantly improve the low first attempt rate at passing the [[State bar association|state bar]], but they cautioned that such improvements could be outweighed by decreases in law school attendance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arcidiacono |first1=Peter |last2=Lovenheim |first2=Michael |title=Affirmative Action and the Quality–Fit Trade-off |journal=Journal of Economic Literature |date=1 March 2016 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=3–51 |doi=10.1257/jel.54.1.3 |s2cid=1876963 }}</ref> A 2011 study proposed that mismatch can only occur when a selective school possesses private information that, had this information been disclosed, would have changed the student's choice of school. The study found that this is in fact the case for [[Duke University]], and that this information predicts the student's academic performance after beginning college.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arcidiacono |first1=Peter |last2=Aucejo |first2=Esteban M. |last3=Fang |first3=Hanming |last4=Spenner |first4=Kenneth I. |title=Does affirmative action lead to mismatch? A new test and evidence |journal=Quantitative Economics |date=November 2011 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=303–333 |doi=10.3982/QE83 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2016 study on affirmative action in India finds evidence for the mismatching hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bagde |first1=Surendrakumar |last2=Epple |first2=Dennis |last3=Taylor |first3=Lowell |title=Does Affirmative Action Work? Caste, Gender, College Quality, and Academic Success in India |journal=American Economic Review |date=1 June 2016 |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=1495–1521 |doi=10.1257/aer.20140783 |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles/attachments?retrieve=_ipe5iZhjGakTC0SaPxwDx2piOS0fkOa }}</ref> In India 90% IIT-Roorkee dropouts are members of a [[Other Backward Class|backward caste]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/90-percent-of-iit-roorkee-dropouts-are-backward-caste-a-case-against-affirmative-action-2379964.html | title=90% IIT-Roorkee dropouts are backward caste: A case against affirmative action?| date=6 August 2015}}</ref>
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