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===Europe=== ==== Denmark ==== Greenlanders have special advantages when applying for university, college or vocation university degrees in Denmark. With these specific rules, Greenlanders can get into degrees without the required grade averages by fulfilling certain criteria. They need to have a grade average of over 6,0 and have lived a certain number of years in Greenland. These rules have been in force since 1 January 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|last=lok|title=Optagelse af grønlandske ansøgere — Uddannelses- og Forskningsministeriet|url=https://ufm.dk/uddannelse/videregaende-uddannelse/sogning-optag-og-vejledning/optagelse/optagelse-af-gronlandske-ansogere|access-date=2020-08-29|website=ufm.dk|language=da}}</ref> ==== Finland ==== In certain university education programs, including legal and medical education, there are quotas for persons who reach a certain standard of skills in the [[Swedish language]]; for students admitted in these quotas, the education is partially arranged in Swedish.<ref name="Helsinki med">{{cite web|title=Hakuopas 2011. Lääketieteen ja hammaslääketieteen opiskelijavalinnat |url=http://www.med.helsinki.fi/peruskoulutus/docs/opiskelijaksi/hakuopas_2011.pdf |publisher=Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki |access-date=4 June 2011 |language=fi |year=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002143806/http://www.med.helsinki.fi/peruskoulutus/docs/opiskelijaksi/hakuopas_2011.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Helsinki law">{{cite web|title=Oikeustieteellinen tiedekunta. Hakuopas 2011|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/oikeustiede/opiskelijaksi/valintakokeet/2011/hakuopas_2011.pdf|publisher=Faculty of Law, University of Helsinki|access-date=4 June 2011|page=3|language=fi|year=2011}}</ref> The purpose of the quotas is to guarantee that a sufficient number of professionals with skills in Swedish are educated for nationwide needs.<ref name="Helsinki med" /> The quota system has met with criticism from the Finnish speaking majority, some of whom consider the system unfair. In addition to these linguistic quotas, women may get preferential treatment in recruitment for certain public sector jobs if there is a gender imbalance in the field. ==== France ==== No distinctions based on race, religion or sex are allowed under the 1958 [[French Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Jonathan D. Mott, PhD |url=http://thisnation.com/library/france.html |title=The French Constitution of 1958 and its Amendments |publisher=Thisnation.com |date=7 February 1992 |access-date=28 April 2014}}</ref> Since the 1980s, a French version of affirmative action based on neighborhood is in place for primary and secondary education. Some schools, in neighborhoods labeled "Priority Education Zones", are granted more funds than the others. Students from these schools also benefit from special policies in certain institutions (such as [[Sciences Po]]).<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.3989/chdj.2015.016|title = Esencia colonial de una política contemporánea: Por un enfoque fanoniano de la discriminación positiva en Francia| journal=Culture & History Digital Journal| volume=4| issue=2| pages=e016|year = 2015|last1 = Ghorbal|first1 = Karim| doi-access=free}}</ref> The French Ministry of Defence tried in 1990 to make it easier for young French soldiers of North-African descent to be promoted in rank and obtain driving licenses. After a strong protest by a young French lieutenant<ref>Jean-Pierre Steinhofer, "Beur ou ordinaire", ''Armée d'ajourd'hui'', 1991.</ref> in the Ministry of Defence newspaper (''Armées d'aujourd'hui''), the driving license and rank plan was cancelled. After the Sarkozy election, a new attempt in favour of Arab-French students was made, but Sarkozy did not gain enough political support to change the French constitution. However, some French schools do implement affirmative action in that they are obligated to take a certain number of students from impoverished families.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2008/12/17/le-plan-sarkozy-pour-favoriser-l-egalite-reelle-des-chances_1132074_823448.html#ens_id=1128487° |title=Le Plan Sarkozy |work=Le Monde |date=17 December 2008 |access-date=11 April 2012|last1=Eeckhout |first1=Laetitia Van }}</ref> Additionally, following the Norwegian example, after 27 January 2014, women must represent at least 20% of board members in all stock exchange listed or state-owned companies. After 27 January 2017, the proportion will increase to 40%. All appointments of males as directors will be invalid as long as the quota is not met, and monetary penalties may apply for other directors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vie-publique.fr/actualite/panorama/texte-discussion/proposition-loi-relative-representation-equilibree-femmes-hommes-au-sein-conseils-administration-surveillance-egalite-professionnelle.html |title=Vie Publique |publisher=Vie-publique.fr |date=25 June 2002 |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> ==== Germany ==== Article 3 of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|German Basic Law]] provides for equal rights of all people regardless of sex, race or social background. There are programs stating that if men and women have equal qualifications, women have to be preferred for a job; moreover, the disabled should be preferred to non-disabled people. This is typical for all positions in state and university service {{as of|2007|lc=y}}, typically using the phrase "We try to increase diversity in this line of work". In recent years, there has been a long public debate about whether to issue programs that would grant women a privileged access to jobs in order to fight discrimination. Germany's ''[[The Left (Germany)|Left Party]]'' brought up the discussion about affirmative action in [[Education in Germany|Germany's school system]]. According to [[Stefan Zillich]], quotas should be "a possibility" to help working class children who did not do well in school gain access to a ''[[Gymnasium (Germany)|Gymnasium]]'' (University-preparatory school).<ref>Susanne Vieth-Entus (29. December 2008): "Sozialquote: Berliner Gymnasien sollen mehr Schüler aus armen Familien aufnehmen". Der Tagesspiegel</ref> Headmasters of ''Gymnasien'' have objected, saying that this type of policy would "be a disservice" to poor children.<ref>Martin Klesmann (23 February 2009). "'Kinder aus Neukölln würden sich nicht integrieren lassen' – Ein Politiker und ein Schulleiter streiten über Sozialquoten an Gymnasien". Berliner Zeitung</ref> ==== Norway ==== In all [[Allmennaksjeselskap|public stock companies (ASA)]] boards, either gender should be represented by at least 40%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19970613-045-032.html#6-3 |title=LOV-1997-06-13-45 Lov om allmennaksjeselskaper (allmennaksjeloven) |publisher=Lovdata.no |access-date=29 July 2010}}</ref> This affects roughly 400 companies of over 300,000 in total.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nettavisen.no/nyheter/27-000-flere-bedrifter-i-norge/1874337.html |title=27.000 flere bedrifter i Norge |date=27 May 2004 |publisher=nettavisen.no |access-date=31 May 2015}}</ref> Seierstad & Opsahl in their study of the effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway found that there are few boards chaired by a woman, from the beginning of the implementation of the affirmative action policy period to August 2009, the proportion of boards led by a woman has increased from 3.4% to 4.3%. This suggests that the law has had a marginal effect on the sex of the chair and the boards remain internally segregated. Although at the beginning of our observation period, only 7 of 91 prominent directors were women. The gender balance among prominent directors has changed considerably throughout the period, and at the end of the period, 107 women and 117 men were prominent directors. By applying more restrictive definitions of prominence, the proportion of directors who are women generally increases. If only considering directors with at least three directorships, 61.4% of them are women. When considering directors with seven or more directorships, all of them are women. Thus, affirmative action increases the female population in the director position.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seierstad |first1=Cathrine |last2=Opsahl |first2=Tore |title=For the few not the many? The effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Management |date=March 2011 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |doi=10.1016/j.scaman.2010.10.002 }}</ref> A 2016 study found no effect of the ASA representation requirement on either valuation or profits of the affected companies, and also no correlation between the requirement and the restructuring of companies away from ASA.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://e24.no/makro-og-politikk/norges-handelshoeyskole/studie-kjoennskvotering-ingen-effekt-paa-loennsomhet/23783217 |title=Studie: Kjønnskvotering ingen effekt på lønnsomhet |publisher=e24.no |access-date=5 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eckbo|first1=Espen|last2=Nygaard|first2=Knut|last3=Thorburn|first3=Karin|title=How Costly Is Forced Gender-Balancing of Corporate Boards?|journal=European Corporate Governance Institute (ECGI) – Finance Working Paper No. 463/2016; Tuck School of Business Working Paper No. 2746786|date=26 December 2016|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2746786|s2cid=211708386}}</ref> ==== Romania ==== [[Romani people]] are allocated quotas for access to public schools and state universities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mmuncii.ro/old/ro/domenii-politici-familiale-incluziune-si-asistenta-sociala-romii---progrese-inregistrate-in-romania-in-perioada-2007---2008-540-view.html |title=Romii – PROGRESE ÎNREGISTRATE ÎN ROMÂNIA ÎN PERIOADA 2007–2008 |access-date=30 January 2013 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> ==== Russia ==== Quota systems existed in the [[USSR]] for various social groups including [[ethnic minorities]] (as compensation of their "[[cultural backwardness]]"), women and factory workers. Soon after the 1918 revolution, [[Inessa Armand]], [[Lenin]]'s secretary and lover, was instrumental in creating [[Zhenotdel]], which functioned until the 1930s as part of the international egalitarian and affirmative action movements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stites |first1=Richard |title=Zhenotdel: Bolshevism and Russian Women, 1917–1930 |journal=Russian History |date=1976 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=174–193 |doi=10.1163/187633176X00107 |jstor=24649711 |quote=These egalitarian and affirmative action movements—in other words, early "communism"—receive short shrift in most Western studies... }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Patterson |first1=Michelle Jane |title=Red 'Teaspoons of Charity': Zhenotdel, Russian Women, and the Communist Party, 1919–1930 |date=29 February 2012 |hdl=1807/32159 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9780230501799_11 |chapter=Socialism in One Gender: Masculine Values in the Stalin Revolution |title=Russian Masculinities in History and Culture |year=2002 |last1=Schrand |first1=Thomas G. |pages=194–209 |isbn=978-1-349-42592-1 }}</ref> Quotas for access to university education, offices in the Soviet system and the Communist Party existed: for example, the position of First Secretary of a Soviet Republic's (or Autonomous Republic's) Party Committee was always filled by a representative of this republic's "[[titular ethnicity]]". Modern Russia retains this system partially. Quotas are abolished, but preferences for some ethnic minorities and inhabitants of certain territories remain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sakhapress.ru/archives/207211|title=Представители коренных малочисленных народов Севера имеют право получить бесплатную юридическую помощь|date=18 February 2016}}</ref> ==== Serbia ==== The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia from 2006 established the principles of equality and the prohibition of discrimination on any grounds. It also promotes affirmative action "special measures" for certain marginalized groups, such as national minorities.<ref>[https://advokatiubeogradu.rs/legislation/constitution-of-the-republic-of-serbia.pdf Constitution of The Republic of Serbia] (Constitution of The Republic of Serbia), 2006.</ref> In Serbia the Roma national minority is enabled to enroll in public schools under more favorable conditions.<ref>[http://www.upis.mpn.gov.rs/Cir/Pravilnici Pravilnik ministarstva prosvete o upisu u srednje škole] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806034147/http://www.upis.mpn.gov.rs/Cir/Pravilnici |date=6 August 2020 }} (Regulation of the Ministry of Education on enrollment in secondary schools), 2021.</ref> ==== Slovakia ==== The [[Constitutional Court of Slovakia|Constitutional Court]] declared in October 2005 that affirmative action i.e. "providing advantages for people of an ethnic or racial minority group" as being against its [[Constitution of Slovakia|Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Goldirova |first=Renata |url=http://euobserver.com/9/20123 |title=Slovakia bans positive discrimination |publisher=Euobserver.com |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> ==== United Kingdom ==== The [[Equality Act 2010]] established the principles of equality and their implementation in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15 |title=Equality Act 2010 |publisher=Legislation.gov.uk |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> In the UK, any discrimination, quotas or favouritism due to sex, race and ethnicity among other "protected characteristics" is illegal by default in education, employment, during commercial transactions, in a private club or association, and while using public services,<ref name="cre"/><ref name=govuk/><ref name="personneltoday.com"/> although exceptions exist, to wit: "Section 159 of the Equality Act 2010 allows an employer to treat an applicant or employee with a protected characteristic (eg race, sex or age) more favourably in connection with recruitment or promotion than someone without that characteristic who is as qualified for the role. The employer must reasonably think that people with the protected characteristic suffer a disadvantage or are under-represented in that particular activity. Taking the [[positive action]] must be a proportionate means of enabling or encouraging people to overcome the disadvantage or to take part in the activity.")<ref name="xperthr.co.uk"/> Specific exemptions include: * Part of the [[Northern Ireland Peace Process]], the [[Good Friday Agreement]] and the resulting [[Patten report]] required the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] to recruit 50% of numbers from the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] community and 50% from the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and [[Ethnic minorities in Northern Ireland|other communities]], in order to reduce any possible bias towards Protestants. This was later referred to as the '50:50' measure.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1540861.stm |title= Police recruitment 'will be 50:50' |work=BBC News |date=12 September 2001 }}</ref> (See also [[Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland]].) * The [[Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002]] allowed the use of [[all-women shortlists]] to select more women as election candidates.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons/lib/research/briefings/snpc-05057.pdf|title=All-women shortlists|publisher=House of Commons Library|id=SN/PC/05057|date=29 April 2009|author=Richard Kelly and Isobel White|access-date=23 June 2009}}</ref> In 2019, an [[employment tribunal]] ruled that, while attempting to create a diverse force, the Cheshire Police had discriminated against a "well prepared" white heterosexual male. The ruling stated that "while positive action can be used to boost diversity, it should only be applied to distinguish between candidates who were all equally well qualified for a role".<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-merseyside-47335859 |title = Force discriminated against white male|work = BBC News|date = 22 February 2019}}</ref>
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