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{{Short description|Policy of promoting members of groups that have previously suffered from discrimination}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{EngvarB|date=June 2022}} {{discrimination sidebar}} '''Affirmative action''' involves sets of policies and practices within a government or organization seeking to include particular groups based on their gender, race, sexuality, creed or nationality in areas in which such groups are underrepresented - such as education and employment.<ref>{{cite web|title=positive discrimination|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/positive-discrimination?q=positive+discrimination|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140223185155/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/positive-discrimination?q=positive+discrimination|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 February 2014|work=Oxford Dictionaries |publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=13 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=affirmative action|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/affirmative-action?q=affirmative+action|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140223185154/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/affirmative-action?q=affirmative+action|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 February 2014|work=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher= Oxford University Press|access-date= 13 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="The Federal Register">{{cite web | publisher = The Federal Register | title = Executive Order 11246—Equal employment opportunity | url = https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html | access-date =5 February 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100330083544/http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html| archive-date= 30 March 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = Stanford University | title = Affirmative Action | url = http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/ | access-date =30 October 2022 | quote = 'Affirmative action' means positive steps taken to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas of employment, education, and culture from which they have been historically excluded.}}</ref> Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has sought to achieve goals such as bridging inequalities in employment and pay, increasing access to education, promoting diversity, and redressing apparent past wrongs, harms, or hindrances. The nature of affirmative-action policies varies from region to region and exists on a spectrum from a hard quota to merely targeting encouragement for increased participation. Some countries use a quota system, reserving a certain percentage of government jobs, political positions, and school vacancies for members of a certain group; an example of this is the [[Reservation in India|reservation system in India]]. In some other jurisdictions where quotas are not used, minority-group members are given preference or special consideration in selection processes. [[Affirmative action in the United States | In the United States, affirmative action]] in employment and education has been the subject of legal and political controversy. In 2003, the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], in ''[[Grutter v. Bollinger]]'', held that the [[University of Michigan Law School]] could consider race as a plus-factor when evaluating applicants holistically and maintained the prohibition on the use of quotas.<ref name="Supct.law.cornell.edu">{{cite web|url=http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/03highlts.html#2 |title= Highlights of the 2002–2003 Supreme Court Term |date= 27 June 2002 |publisher= Supct.law.cornell.edu |access-date= 1 September 2013}}</ref><ref>Melvin I Urofsky, ''The Affirmative Action Puzzle: A Living History From Reconstruction to Today'' (2020)</ref> In the United Kingdom, hiring someone simply because of their protected-group status, without regard to their performance, is illegal.<ref name="cre" /><ref name="govuk">{{cite web|title=Types of discrimination |url= https://www.gov.uk/discrimination-your-rights/types-of-discrimination|work=Discrimination: your rights |publisher= GOV.UK|access-date= 7 April 2013|author= GOV.UK|author-link= Gov.uk|date= 4 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="personneltoday.com">{{Cite web |last= Millar |first= Michael |date= 2006-01-17 |title= Is there a case for positive discrimination? |url=https://www.personneltoday.com/hr/is-there-a-case-for-positive-discrimination/ |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=Personnel Today |language=en-GB}}</ref> However, the law in the United Kingdom does allow for membership in a protected and disadvantaged group to be considered in hiring and promotion when the group is under-represented in a given area and if the candidates are of equal merit (in which case membership in a disadvantaged group can become a "tie-breaker").<ref name="xperthr.co.uk">{{Cite web |url= https://www.xperthr.co.uk/faq/what-positive-action-is-permitted-under-discrimination-legislation/103008/|title=What "positive action" is permitted under discrimination legislation? | FAQs | Tools | XpertHR.co.uk|website=www.xperthr.co.uk}}</ref> An alternative approach, common in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe, is [[positive action]]. Under this approach, the focus tends to be on ensuring equal opportunity and, for example, targeted advertising campaigns to encourage ethnic minority candidates to join police forces. This is often described as being [[Racial color blindness| "color blind"]], although the social viability of that concept is heavily contested by certain elements in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |title= Racism Without Racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States |last= Bonilla-Silva |first= Eduardo |date= 2014 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |isbn= 978-1-44-222055-3 |edition= 4th |pages= 101–102 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author= Gallagher, Charles A.|date= 2003 |title= Color-Blind Privilege: The Social and Political Functions of Erasing the Color Line in Post Race America|journal=Race, Gender & Class|volume=10|issue=4|pages=22–37|jstor=41675099}}</ref> In the United States, affirmative action is controversial<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Stanford University | title = Affirmative Action | url = http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/ | access-date =30 October 2022 | quote = When [affirmative-action] steps involve preferential selection — selection on the basis of race, gender, or ethnicity — affirmative action generates intense controversy.}}</ref> and [[public opinion]] on the subject is divided. Supporters of affirmative action argue that it promotes equality and representation for groups which are socio-economically disadvantaged or have faced historical discrimination or oppression.<ref name="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">{{cite web | publisher = Stanford University | title = Affirmative Action | url = http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/ | access-date =30 October 2022}}</ref>{{qn|date=October 2022}} Opponents of affirmative action have argued that it is a form of [[reverse discrimination]],<ref name=":2" /> that it tends to benefit the most privileged within minority groups at the expense of the least fortunate within majority groups,<ref name=":3" /> or that - when applied to universities - it can hinder minority students by placing them in courses too difficult for them.<ref name="auto" />
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